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REISSUED AS PART OF TH€ TENTH ANNIVERSARY OBSERVANCE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION iag&
Marine Biological Laboratory Library
Woods Hole, ^\as3achusett5
Gift of Bostwick H. Ketchum - 1976
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Vannevar Bush
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science
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A report to the President on a Program for Postwar Scientific Research
By Vannevar Bush
Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development
July 1945
Picpriiitcd Jiily 1960 Niitiotiid Scicticf Fotnulation Wns/ij«^(oji, D. C.
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Science — The Endless Frontier
"New frontiers of the mind are before us, and if they are pioneered with the same vision, boldness, and drive with which we have waged this war we can create a fuller and more fruitful emplovment and a fuller and more fruitful life." —
Franklin D. Roosevelt.
November 17, 1944.
FOREWORD
The National Science Foundation has rendered a useful ser\'icc in reprinting Science, the Endless Frontier as part ot its tenth anni\'crsarv observance. The Report, as well as the studies that supported it, represents the collective efforts ot a group of dis- tinguished scientists and other scholars who brought their special experience and knowledge to bear on the problem of establishing a strong research and develop- ment effort in the postwar period. Their hndings with respect to the relations of government to science and education merit a re-reading in the light of todav's events. Dr. Waterman's Introduction constitutes an effective summary of the extent t(j which the recom- mendations of Science, the Endless Frontier have been realized during the Fifteen )'ears since it first appeared. I welcome the republication and hope that it will be a genuine serxice to all who have responsi- bilities for the national effort in scientific research and development.
Vannevar Bush
111
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword iii
Introduction vii
Letter of Transmittal 1
President Roosevelt's Letter 3
Summar\' of the Report 5
Part One: Introduction:
Scientific Progress is Essential 10
Science is a Proper Concern of Go\ ernment 11
Go\ernment Relations to Science — Past .md Future 11
Freedom of Inquir\ Must be Preser\ ed 12
Part Two: The \\\ir A^j^ainst Disease:
In War 13
In Peace 13
Unsoh-ed Problems 14
Broad and Basic Studies Needed 14
Coordinated Attack on S|iccial Problems 14
Action is Necessarx 15
Part Three: Science mid the Piddic Welfare
Relation to National Sccuiitx 17
Science and lobs 18
The Importance of Basic Research 18
Centers of Basic Research 19
Research W^ithin the Cio\ ernment 20
Industrial Research 21
International Exchange of Scicntidc Inlormation 22
The Special Need for EedLial Sup[iort 22
The Cost of a Program 22
V
Part Four: Renewal of Our Scientific Talent:
Nature of the Problem 23
A Note of Warning 23
The Wartime Deficit 24
Improve the Quahty 24
Remove the Barriers 25
The Generation in Uniform Must Not be Lost 25
A Program 26
Part Five: A Problem of Scientific Reconversion:
Effects of MobiHzation of Science for War 28
Security Restrictions Should be Lifted Promptly 28
Need for Coordination 29
A Board to Control Release 29
Publication Should be Encouraged 30
Part Six: The Means to the End:
New Responsibilities for Go\ernmcnt 31
The Mechanism 31
Five Fundamentals 32
Military Research 33
National Research Foundation 34
L Purposes 34
IL Members , 34
IIL Organizations 35
IV. Functions 37
V. Patent Policy 38
VI. Special Authority 38
VII. Budget .' 39
Action b\' Congress 40
Appendices
1. Committees Consulted 43
2. Report of the Medical Advisory Committee, Dr. W. W. Palmer,
Chairman 46
3. Report of the Committee on Science and the Public Welfare,
Dr. Isaiah Bowman, Chairman 70
4. Report of the Committee on Disco\er\ and De\elopment of
Scientific Talent, Dr. Henry Allen Moe, Chairman 135
5. Report of the Committee on Publication of Scientific Inlormation,
Dr. Irvin Stewart, Chairman 186
Index 193
VI
INTRODUCTION
Alan T. Waterman Director, National Science Foundation
On November 17, 1944, President Franklin D. Roosevelt addressed a letter to Vannevar Bush, director of the wartime Office of Scientific Research and Development, asking his advice as to how the lessons that had been learned from that experience could be applied in the days of peace that lay ahead. With the help and recommendations of four committees of dis- tinguished scientists and other scholars, Dr. Bush set forth in clear and specific terms what he felt the relations of government to science should be and how these should be sustained. His report to the President was published in July 1945, under the imaginative title. Science, the Endless Frontier. The major recommendation was that a "National Research Foundation" should be established by the Congress to serve as a focal point for the support and encouragement of basic research and education in the sciences and for the development of national science policy. Five years later, in May^ 1950, the Congress passed the National Science Foundation Act of 1950, bringing the new foundation into being.
On the occasion of the tenth anniversary of the Foundation's establishment, it seems appropriate to turn again to Science, the Endless Frontier and to attempt some assessment of the extent to which the objectives it set forth have been met. A re-reading impresses one with the perspicacity with which this remarkable document anticipated the major needs and problems relating to research and development in the postwar period. Although there have been shifts in emphasis since the report was written 15 years ago, its principles and its clear enunciation of the fundamental responsibility of the Federal Government in the area of research and development are as fresh and sound today as when they were written.
The original edition of Science, the Endless Frontier has long been out of print and the National Science Foundation is happy to make it available once more — not as an historical document, but as a classic expression of desirable relationships between government and science in the United States. Its usefulness and validity today are all the more remarkable when it is remembered that Dr. Bush and his advisers were of course quite unable to anticipate the specific developments that have most profoundly influenced our time, namely, the Korean war and the cold war, the missile and satellite race, the Soviet technological challenge, and the rapid acceleration of space research. Nor could Dr. Bush have estimated, in the final days of World War II, the full growth and direction of the atomic energy effort, including
vii
the large-scale programs and peaceful uses of nuclear energy. But he did anticipate in fullest measure that important developments would occur and that science and science education would be of immense importance in the postwar growth of the United States. The closing words of his Report were strongly prophetic: "On the wisdom with which we bring science to bear against the problems of the coming years depends in large measure our future as a nation."
Science and Government
Dr. Bush expressed the view that science is the proper concern of govern- ment but pointed out that the Government had only begun to utilize science in the Nation's welfare. He cited the absence within the Government of a body charged with formulating or executing national science policy and pointed out that there were no standing committees of the Congress devoted to this important subject. At the present time, science policy is constantly being made by the National Science Foundation with respect to basic re- search; by the President's Science Advisory Committee in matters in which the Chief Executive is responsible for direct action; and by the Federal Coun- cil on Science and Technology on coordination and. planning that involve the interaction of the agencies of the Government concerned with research and development.
There are now three standing committees in the Congress whose con- cerns are directly related to science and technology: the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy; the Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences; and the House Committee on Science and Astronautics. Twenty- four agencies within the Federal Government are responsible for the Gov- ernment's obligation of funds for conduct of research and development, although nine agencies account for 99 per cent of the total.
The Importance of Basic Research
The principal focus of Science, the Endless Frontier is the importance of basic research. Of it. Dr. Bush said:
Basic research leads to new knowledge. It provides scientific capital. It creates the fund from which the practical applications of knowledge must be drawn. . . . Today, it is truer than ever that basic research is the pacemaker of technological progress. ... A nation which dei^ends upon others for its new basic scientific knowledge will be slow in its industrial progress and weak in its competitive position in world trade, regardless of its mechanical skill.
Dr. Bush viewed the publicly and privately supported colleges and uni- versities and the endowed research institutes as the centers of basic research that must furnish both the new scientific knowledge and the trained research workers. He pointed out that if they were to meet the rapidly increasing demands of industry and government for new scientific knowledge, their basic research would have to be strengthened by the use of public funds.
Basic research is fundamental to all of the research and training needs
viii
which the Report considers. It is through basic research in biology, bio- chemistry and other sciences, for example, that the solutions to major disease problems are to be reached. Basic research is necessary to national defense if the United States is not to find itself fighting the next war with weapons merely improved from the last. Economic growth and the development of new products in industry are dependent upon rich resources of basic knowl- edge. And finally, knowledge of the methods and techniques of basic research is essential to the training and full development of skilled research investigators.
In the years since Science, the Endless Frontier was written, there has been an increased awareness on the part of the Government of the importance of basic research as shown by a steady trend upward in the amount of Federal funds for basic research and by an increase in the number and diversity of Government sources bv which such support is furnished. I lowexer, the per- centage of funds available for basic research has failed to increase in relation to total Federal funds for research and development — remaining somewhere between 6 and 7 per cent for a number of years.
In short, all the problems relating to the understanding and nurture of basic research in this country have not been solved. The general public is still far from a true understanding of the nature of basic research and of the funda- mental difference between science and technology. The evidence suggests that industry could profitably support a larger basic research effort both in its ov^rn laboratories and in the form of extramural support for colleges and universities. The relative proportion of Federal research and development funds between basic research and applied research and development has not achieved a completely desirable balance. These matters will be considered in somewhat greater detail further on under the discussion of the National Science Foundation.
Research Within the Government
Science, the Endless Frontier notes that research within the Government is an important part of our total research activity and urges that it be strength- ened and expanded. In particular, it cites the need for revision of personnel practices and procedures in order to place the Government in a more advan- tageous position in competing with industries and the universities for first- class scientific talent.
Some progress has been made toward carrying out these recommendations. A series of legislative acts has created an excepted category for scientific per- sonnel, authorized the Federal agencies to pay travel expenses to posts of duty, and provided opportunity for scientific and professional employees to take leave with pay, for educational and training purposes. Changes in adminis- trative attitudes have brought about an improved climate of opinion in Gov- ernment laboratories which has resulted in increased opportunity and funds for Government scientists to engage in basic research. Publication in scien- tific journals is encouraged, and the payment of travel expenses to enable Government employees to attend scientific meetings is now rather generally accepted as right and necessary.
ix
With respect to the organization of the administration of scientific activities within the Government, the Report declares:
In the Government the arrangement whereby the numerous scientific agencies form parts of larger departments has both advantages and disadvantages. But the present pattern is firmly established and there is much to be said for it. There is, however, a very real need for some measure of coordination of the common scientific activities of these agencies, both as to policies and budgets, and at present no such means exist.
The Report recommends :
A permanent Science Advisory Board should be created to consult with these scientific bureaus and to advise the executive and legislative branches of Government as to the policies and budgets of Government agencies engaged in scientific research.
The Report recommends that the board should be composed "of disinterested scientists w^ho have no connection with the affairs of any Government agency."
These observations are of particular interest in view of the current debate over the need for a Department of Science and Technology. The coordina- tion of common scientific activities, both as to policies and budget, is the responsibility for the newly established Federal Council on Science and Tech- nology; and the advice and counsel of disinterested scientists is available to the President through his Science Advisory Committee.
It should be noted, however, that full attention to these matters was stim- ulated primarily by the Russian sputnik. Immediately after its successful launching, the post of Special Assistant to the President for Science and Technology was created; and the President's Science Advisory Committee — which had been established under the Office of Defense Mobilization in 1950 — was reconstituted and placed directly under the President.
Industrial Research
The Bush Report approaches the issue of industrial research by stating directly: "The simplest and most effective way in which the Government can strengthen industrial research is to support basic research and to develop scientific talent." It goes on to point out, however, that one of the most important factors affecting the amount of industrial research is tax law, and it recommends that the Internal Revenue Code be amended to remove un- certainties in regard to the deductibility of research and development ex- penditures as current charges against net income.
The tax laws have now been changed, partially at least, to meet this par- ticular problem. Among various legislative provisions designed to encourage business participation in private research ventures are Section 174 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954, which permits business expenditures for research to be deducted from taxable income, and Section 9 of the Small Business Act of 1958, which encourages small business concerns to engage in joint research and development efforts.
The contributions of industrial research to our development as a nation are too obvious to require review. Furthermore research and development are themselves developing into a major industry for which the late Sumner Slichter coined the phrase, "industry of discovery. The importance of
research to economic stabilization and gnnvth is now almost universally recog- nized. In 1958 the National Science Foundation sponsored a conference on research and development and its impact on the economy. The impact of the conference itself was such that industrial officials who attended confessed afterwards that the conference had convinced them that they should not reduce research and development expenditures in the face of the 1958 re- cession. It is hoped that industry will continue to accord full support to basic research, both in its own laboratories, and, to the extent possible, through extramural support of basic research in the universities.
Organized labor is also developing an increasing awareness of the relation of research to the health and growth of the economy. In 1959 the AFL-CIO sponsored a conference on "Labor and Science in a Changing World." The conference acknowledged the inevitability of the technological progress and explored ways in which organized labor could meet the challenges and demands of the new technology.
Medical Research
Medical research is a point of major emphasis in Science, the Endless Fron- tier. An entire chapter, "The War Against Disease," is devoted to it and it was studied in great detail by one of the four advisory committees. Upper- most in the minds of Dr. Bush and his consultants were the impressive ac- complishments of the military medical research and development effort and the absence of a specific agency for their continued support following the close of the war. Here again the emphasis was on basic studies. The Report observes :
It is wholly probable that progress in the treatment of cardiovascular disease, renal disease, cancer, and similar refractory diseases will be made as the result of funda- mental discoveries in subjects unrelated to those diseases and perhaps entirely un- expected by the investigator. Further progress requires that the entire front of medicine and the underlying sciences of chemistry, physics, anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacolog>', bacteriology, pathology, parasitology, etc, be broadly developed.
Both Dr. Bush and his Medical Advisory Committee recommended action on ihe part of the Federal Government to initiate a support program for basic medical research in the medical schools and in the universities through grants for research and through fellowships. Dr. Bush recommended that the pro- posed program be administered by a "Division of Medical Research" of the "National Research Foundation"; the committee recommended that a second organization be established, to be called the National Foundation for Medical Research. Actually, both recommendations have been met by subsequent events, which resulted in both a division within the National Science Foun- dation that supports basic medical science (Division of Biological and Medical Sciences) and in a completely independent organization, the National In- stitutes of Health, which has far surpassed in its support programs anything that the Committee envisioned in the recommended Medical Research Foundation.
The two sets of recommendations did not differ greatly as to the amount of support that should be established at the initiation of the program — Bush
xi
recommending an initial start of $5 million a year extending upwards to perhaps $20 million a year at the end of five years; his Medical Advisory Com- mittee recommending a start of approximately $5 to $7 million annually, with larger sums to follow as the program developed. The Committee urged the need for unrestricted grants, with support of fellowships and projects being of relati\ely less importance in their thinking.
A striking feature of postwar developments in the Government's support program for medical and health-related sciences has been the rapid rate of increment of funds. This is the result of the deep and continuing interest of the Congress in the progress of medical research. The National Institutes of Health has increased its obligations for research grants alone from $85,000 in 1945 (a year when the Bush Report suggests S5 to $7 million) to more than $155 million for grants and contracts in 1959. In addition, of course, the Institutes operate their own intramural research program at the Clinical Center and funds for this were around $45 million for 1959.
That both organizational recommendations have been met — that is, for a di\'ision of the Foundation and for a separate institutional organization — appears to have been a fortunate turn of affairs. The National Institutes of Health stresses research aimed at the care and cure of diseases, including basic research related to its mission, as defined b\ Executive Order 10512. The National Science Foundation, on the other hand, supports basic research in this area primarily for the purpose of ad\'ancing our knowledge and under- standing of biological and medical fields. With more than one source of funds available from the Federal Government, scientists enjoy the broader base of support that is consistent with American tradition.
Although the U. S. Public Health Ser\'ice and the National Science Foundation are the principal sources of funds for medical research, mention should also be made of the intramural programs of the Veterans Adminis- tration, the military services, and the medical research programs of the Atomic Energy Commission.
Military Research
With the ci\'ilian Office of Scientific Research and Development just bringing to a close its brilliantly successful program of wartime research on weapons and devices of warfare, and problems of military medicine. Dr. Bush felt that a certain amount of long-range scientific research on military problems should continue to be carried on in peacetime b\' a civilian group. Such research would complement research on the improvement of existing weapons which, he felt, could best be done within the militarv establishment. He therefore recommended that the new "National Research Foundation" should include a division of national defense. For this he contemplated a modest level of expenditures of $10 million for the first year, rising to $20 million by the end of the fifth year.
Here again, as in the case of medical research, the situation evolved in a way quite different from that originally visualized by Bush, but which has probably met the substance of his principal recommendations. A division of national defense was stricken from proposed legislation establishing a new
xii
agency largely because the delay had resulted in different measures being taken. The military services, who were well jileased with the civilian re- search performed in the universities under OSRl) sponsorship, continued such arrangements with the unixersities by writing appropriate new contracts to continue the work started under OSRD auspices or to launch entirely new investigations. In ensuing years, many contracts of this type were entered into by the military services with a growing number of universities. The central laboratories originally associated with OSRD contracts, such as the Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, the Radiation Labora- tory at M.LT., and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory of the California Institute of Technology, developed into the research centers, which, though supported by military funds, are operated by civilian scientists under civilian manage- ment.
In addition to applied research for the solution of immediate problems, the three services gradually expanded their research programs to include grants for basic research — in general related to their missions but often of a very fundamental nature. During the five-year period between the publication of Science, the Endless Frontier and the enactment of the National Science Foundation legislation in 1950, the Navy Department, through its Office of Naval Research (established b\' Congress in 1946) gave generous support to basic research in a wide variety of fields. Later, by order of their respective secretaries, a similar pattern was adopted by the Department of the Army, through its Office of Ordnance Research, and the Air Force, through the Air Force Office of Scientific Research.
The Bush thesis that "some research on military problems should be con- tinued, in time of peace as well as in war, by civilians independently of the military establishment" has not been adequately tested because of the un- certain character of the peace that has existed since the close of World War II.
In general, however, it can be said that a substantial number of the Nation's top scientists, both within the Department of Defense and in outside institu- tions, are applying their talents to military problems with imagination and \'igor.
International Relations in Science
With their long tradition of effectix'e international cooperation in science, it is not surprising that a group of scientists should urge upon the Government the importance of a vital program for the continuing international exchange of scientific information, through both the medium of scientific literature and active participation in international conferences, symposia, and other forms of international collaboration in science.
Thus the Committee on Science and the Public Welfare recommended that scientific attaches be appointed to serve in certain selected United States em- bassies. "Such a post, ' observed the Committee, "would appear to be most important in countries such as Russia, where a great deal, if not all, of the scientific activity is controlled or directed by the government and where other channels of scientific communication have been greatly restricted for several
xiii
years." This recommendation was reaffirmed by a special Department of State International Science Steering Committee in its report, Science and Foreign Policy, released in May 1950 at about the same time the National Science Foundation legislation was being enacted.
The Office of Science Adviser to the Secretary of State was established in a preliminary way in the summer of 1950 and the post of Science Adviser was formally filled as such in February 1951. During the first year, science attaches were assigned to London, Stockholm and Bern. The following year similar posts were added in Bonn and Paris.
Following the resignation of the Science Adviser in July 1953, the program was gradually permitted to lapse. Meanwhile, the scientific community, which felt that the program had made a definite contribution to international understanding and cooperation in science, pressed for a reactivation of the program — principally through the medium of editorial comment as expressed in various scientific journals. Under urging from the National Academy of Sciences, the National Science Foundation, and the President's Science Ad- visory Committee, the Department of State decided to renew and strengthen the program in July 1957.
The new Science Adviser took office in January 1958. In January 1959 the attache program was again active, with attaches assigned to London, Paris, Stockholm, Bonn, Rome, Tokyo, New Delhi, Rio de Janeiro, and Buenos Aires. At the present time no real obstacle appears to exist to the fulfillment of the original Bush proposal that a scientific attache in Moscow would be useful. In addition, the way appears to have been opened for better ex- change between the U. S. and the U.S.S.R. of both scientific information and scientists under the Bronk-Nesmeyanov Agreement of July 1959.
As far as international scientific conferences are concerned, the situation is probably more satisfactory than at any time since the Bush Report was pub- lished. U. S. attendance at such meetings has been strengthened and placed on a more orderly basis through the National Science Foundation's authority to pay travel expenses of American scientists attending scientific meetings abroad and through the continued backing of the scientific unions by the National Academy of Sciences. In general, scientists are chosen to represent the U. S. by their peers acting usually through the scientific societies.
With respect to foreign scientists traveling to the U. S. for scientific meet- ings, there have been some improvements in the situation. The visa problem of recent years has been greatly alleviated. The current problem, which is a very real one for science but which transcends scientific considerations, is the problem of recognition and non-recognition of certain nations. The inter- national scientific community operates without regard to political considera- tions and establishes its meetings and selects its delegates solely on the basis of their scientific qualifications. When these run head-on into political con- siderations involving the entrance of foreign nationals, there are, of course, knotty problems to be solved. At the present time, these problems appear to admit of no easy solution.
On the positive side, by far the largest and most impressive example of eflfective international cooperation in science was the International Geo- physical Year of 1957-58. The U. S. was one of 66 nations participating in the
XIV
18-month period of intensive geophysical research. The scientific program was under the direction of the U. S. National Committee for the International Geophysical Year, National Academy of Sciences. Here again the Bush Report anticipated what was to come by citing the International Polar Year as an example of significant international scientific activity. The Report rec- ommended that "the National Research Foundation be charged with the responsibility of participating in such international cooperative scientific enter- prises as it deems desirable." The National Science Foundation secured and administered Government funds for U. S. participation in the International Geophysical Year to the extent of $43,500,000.
In the contemporary scene, international activities in science have neces- sarily widened to include political considerations. Through such mediums as the International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, the nations of the world are working to divert the powerful new forces of nuclear energy into constructive uses. Similarly, the nations may find it necessary in the common good to agree and cooperate on scientific and practical aspects of outer space research. The Antarctic Treaty under which twelve nations have agreed to preserve the Antarctic as a great scientific laboratory is a major landmark in international relations.
Renewal of Scientific Talent
In a chapter entitled "Renewal of Our Scientific Talent," Dr. Bush takes as a major premise the statement of James B. Conant that ". . . in every section of the entire area where the word science may properly be applied, the limit- ing factor is a human one. We shall have rapid or slow advance in this direc- tion or in that depending on the number of really first-class men who are engaged in the work in question. ... So in the last analysis the future of science in this country will be determined by our basic educational policy."
Dr. Bush and his advisory committee on education were concerned (1) with broadening the base from which students with scientific aptitude and talents could be drawn, and (2) with filling the wartime deficit in young scientists and engineers. They were concerned with quality and with the full opera- tion of the democratic process. They felt that all boys and girls should be able to feel that, if they have what it takes, there is no limit to the opportunity. A ceiling should not be imposed on a young person's educational opportunities either by limited family means or negative family attitudes.
Science, the Endless Frontier also emphasized the importance of teaching in these words: "Improvement in the teaching of science is imperative; for students of latent scientific ability are particularly vulnerable to high school teaching which fails to awaken interest or to provide adequate instruction."
The specific recommendations of the Bush Report in the area of science education were for the establishment of a national program of science scholar- ships and science fellowships and for the subsequent enrollment of the re- cipients of these awards in a National Science Reserve upon which the Gov- ernment could draw in times of emergency.
In the establishment and operation of the Foundation's program of educa- tion in the sciences, there has been fundamental and perhaps unanimous
XV
agreement with the Bush thesis. The methods and techniques by which these objectives are to be accomphshed do not coincide at every point with the rather general proposals set forth in the Bush Report; nevertheless, I think it can be said that all the programs that the Foundation has initiated and supported have contributed in significant measure to the principal rec- ommendation of Dr. Bush, namely, that the Nation's pool of scientific talent should be strengthened and improved.
In the very first year of operation with its total budget only $3.5 million, the Foundation awarded 575 predoctoral and postdoctoral fellowships. Over the ten-year period the fellowship program has been gradually expanded to include fellowships in other categories, and more than 12,000 fellowships in all cate- gories have been awarded.
The Foundation has not embarked upon a program of scholarship support for a number of reasons, the principal one being the conviction of the National Science Board that an undergraduate program of scholarship support should not be limited to a particular field of science or even to science and engineer- ing generally. The Foundation does, however, support several programs of a different type which provide to gifted students, at both the undergraduate and secondary-school levels, research experience and educational opportunities far beyond those afforded by the normal curriculum.
Financial assistance for undergraduate students was anticipated by Dr. Bush and his Committee. Although Public Law 346 (G.I. Bill of Rights) had been passed in 1944 and is mentioned at some length in Science, the Endless Frontier, its ultimate impact was not apparent at that time. The final sum- ming up is impressive. Of the more than 7.5 million veterans who took advantage of this training, more than two million pursued courses in schools of higher learning. Almost 10 per cent of the total (744,000) pursued courses in scientific fields. The engineering profession attracted 45,000 and medicine and related courses more than 180,000. The remaining 113,000 who elected to study in the natural sciences were variously distributed among geology, chemistry, geography, metallurgy, physics, medicine, dentistry, and others.
About two million veterans of the Korean conflict received similar educa- tional opportunities under the Veterans Readjustment Assistance Act of 1952. Engineering, medical, dental, and scientific fields attracted about a quarter million of these.
Other sources of financial aid for undergraduate students include the National Merit Scholarship Corporation, a nonprofit institution established and supported by philanthropic foundations and business organizations, and the National Defense Education Act of 1958, which provides for loans to students in institutions of higher education.
Dr. Bush's urgent plea that the generation in uniform should not be lost seems to have been abundantly answered. The evidence suggests also that the military services are making constructi\'e efforts to utilize both draftees and officers in positions in which they can make use of specialized skills and training. The services also have interesting programs for continuing the advanced education of highly qualified men through such mediums as the Navy Postgraduate School and through direct subsidy of advanced education for military men in colleges and universities.
xvi
A comparison of the support levels tor scientific personnel and education recommended in Science, the Endless Frontier and those that actually obtain is difficult. The Bush recommendation of $7 million lor the first year, rising to $29 milhon by the fifth year, was based on an annual program of 6,000 undergraduate scholarships and 300 graduate fellowships. The National Science Foundation's obligations for scientific personnel, education and man- power, which in the early years were devoted largely to graduate fellowship support, totaled approximately $1.5 million the first year and $4 million about the fifth year. During this period, of course. Federal funds for education were also available through the G.I. Bill, through the fellowships of the National Institutes of Health, and the Atomic Energy Commission, as well as from other sources.
By 1960 the Foundation's obligations for scientific personnel and education totaled more than $65 million, of which more than half went for institutes to improve the teaching of mathematics and science principally in — biit not limited to — the high school. The institutes program initiated by the Founda- tion on an experimental basis in 1953 appealed particularly to Congress and for several succeeding years funds have been specifically appropriated by Con- gress for this purpose.
A significant assessment of the impact and value of these programs is diffi- cult at close range. A number of years, possibly a generation, will be required before we may be able to judge fairly the extent to which Federal-support programs have met their objectives.
In the National Science Foundation, quality rather than numbers has been stressed. We have felt that it was important for the whole broad rank and file of students to be made aware of the opportunities and intellectual satisfac- tions of science as well as other fields; it has seemed to us especially important that those with special aptitudes and ability from whatever walk of Hfe should have the fullest opportunitv for the realization of their talents.
The Foundation is trying to the extent possible to meet the problem at its source. It agrees fully with the Bush stress upon the importance of the teaching of science at the high school level. It has been apparent that in order to teach modern science effectively, teachers must not only be ade- quately trained themselves but must have the opportunity to work with up-to- date curriculums and course content and with proper laboratories and equip- ment.
Beginning with the work of the Physical Sciences Study Group at M.I.T., the Foundation is supporting studies looking toward the complete revision and up-dating of course content in physics, mathematics, chemistry, and biology. This work has included the preparation of new textbooks and teach- ing aids and the introduction of imaginative and stimulating new equipment.
It seems reasonable to assume that these constructive efforts must by their very nature influence for the better the teaching of science. Nevertheless, nothing that has been accomplished thus far provides reason for complacency^- As a nation we still seem a long way from a universal understanding and appreciation for intellectual activity generally and probably will remain so until we attach roughly the same importance to academic achievement as we do, for example, to prowess in sports.
xvn
Reconversion
At the close of the war Dr. Bush and the scientific community generally were keenly aware of the volume and importance of the scientific information generated during the War and which had necessarily been subject to severe security restrictions. Of the medical information developed during the War, however, the greater part had remained unclassified and had been published. Dr. Bush expressed the view ". . . that most of the remainder of the classified scientific material should be released as soon as there is ground for belief that an enemv will not be able to turn it against us in this war."
On the whole, this problem seems to have been successfully met. Despite the enormous volume of material involved and the shortages of military and tech- nical personnel qualified to rule on the security status of technical data, de- classification has been steadilv going on since the War. The Department of Defense through its Office of Declassification Policy and the Atomic Energy Commission through its Division of Classification are actively attacking this problem on a continuing basis. In the opinion of some who are dealing with this problem, more reports are being declassified than consumers can find time to read.
The latter point, of course, is related to the whole broad problem of the dissemination, storage, and retrieval of scientific information. This problem has received attention from the National Science Foundation since its in- ception, but because of limitation of funds, activities in this area were nec- essarily supported at a fairly low level until recently. Early in 1958 the President's Science Advisory Committee made a detailed study of what the Government should do to improve the flow of scientific information and thereby increase its utilization. As a result of the Committee's recommenda- tions, the President directed that the scientific information activity of the National Science Foundation should be strengthened and expanded. At about the same time, under Title IX of Public Law 85-864 (the National Defense Education Act of 1958), the Foundation was authorized to establish a Science Information Service and also a Science Information Council, which would include in its membership outstanding scientists, information experts, and heads of Federal Bureaus and agencies that are directly concerned with the dissemination of information.
In a number of programs the Office of Science Information Service of the Foundation has sought to improve the dissemination of existing materials by helping to provide for prompt publication of research results, reference aids and information centers of various kinds, and translations of significant scien- tific papers in languages not widely understood by American scientists. In addition, the Foundation is supporting a slowly growing body of research directed to whole new approaches in various aspects of the information prob- lem. Most of the research is concerned with exploration of ways of using machines to help with information processing tasks, such as the organization, storage and searching of scientific information and the- translation of scientific publications from foreign languages into English. Before machines can process the texts of documents, however, for either mechanized information searching systems or mechanical translation systems, more precise knowledge of syntax and semantics is needed. Therefore, current research acti\nties in
xviii
these areas are extending our understanding of language with the expectation that uhimately machines will be able to handle linguistic data.
The recommendation of Science, the Endless Frontier that the National Research Foundation should include a Division of Publications and Scien- tific Collaboration has been substantively realized by the creation within the National Science Foundation of the OIHce of Science Information Service.
The National Science Foundation
In a final chapter labeled "The Means to the End," Science, the Endless Frontier recommends the establishment of a National Research Foundation, conceived as the principal means for carrying out the other major recom- mendations contained in the Report. The five years of legislative debate during which the scientific community urged upon Congress the importance of establishing a new foundation are history too familiar to require repetition here.
President 1 ruman's veto of the bill that was finally passed by both Houses of Congress in 1947 was a major disappointment. The President's objections were directed toward the administrative structure of the new agency under which the director would be elected by a board, a provision which he felt would render it insufficiently responsive to the will of the people.
The Bill that was finally passed in May 1950 met the principal objections of the President by specifying that both the Director and the Members of the 24-member board should be appointed by the President. This unusual arrangement left over-all policy determination and program approval largely in the hands of the Board, with the Director reporting to the President, al- though serving ex officio on the Board and acting as its executive officer.
In 1958 the Board, through an ad hoc committee appointed for the purpose, reviewed the working relationship of the Director and the Board in the light of experience and noted that this relationship has been harmonious and con- structive largely as a result of the excellent cooperation on the part of both. The Board noted further that each year of successful operation, built on a clear understanding on the part of each Board Member of his proper func- tion, and upon wise statesmanship on the part of the Director and his asso- ciates gives assurance of continued success. The Board further observed that as each year passes a body of precedents for sound administrative procedures is being built up that may ultimately become an unwritten constitution which will prevail.
Some of the organizational anomaly of the Foundation was resolved in 1959 when Congress amended the National Science Foundation Act to permit the Board to delegate authority to the Director and its Executive Committee to approve grants and contracts in certain situations. The delegation of author- ity has since been implemented by Board action.
In other details, the structure of the National Science Foundation, as finally constituted, does not difter substantially from that proposed by Science, the Endless Frontier, except in the omission of a Division of National Defense. The Report proposed the following Divisions: Medical Research, Natural Science, National Defense, Scientific Personnel and Education, Division of Publications and Scientific Collaboration and appropriate staflf offices.
xix
The principal divisions of the Foundation are: Biology and Medicine; * Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences; and Division of Scientific Personnel and Education. There is also an Office of Science Information Service, an Office of Special International Programs, an Office of Special Studies, as well as an administrative division.
In 1958 the National Science Board approved the establishment of an Office of Social Sciences, thus bestowing formal status on Foundation support of the social sciences which has been carried on on a limited basis since the early days of the Foundation. The social sciences support program which was undertaken on the strength of the permissive phrase in the Act "and other sciences ' includes projects in the following fields: physical anthropology, func- tional archaeology, cultural anthropology, psycholinguistics, human ecology, demography, sociology, social psychology, economic and social geography, economics, history of science, and philosophy of science.
Thus in the National Science Foundation we have a functioning organ- ization closely resembling in organization and design the National Research Foundation proposed by Dr. Bush.
Certainly in ideals and objectives it is a prototype of the institution en- visioned in Science, the Endless Frontier. The really important question is, of course, to what extent has the Foundation been successful in serving the high purposes and needs for which it was created?
Dr. Bush enunciated five basic principles that should characterize an effec- tive program of Government support for scientific research and education :
(1) Whatever the extent of support may be, there must be stability of funds over a period of years so that long-range programs may be undertaken.
(2) The agency to administer such funds should be composed of citizens selected only on the basis of their interest in and capacity to promote the work of the agency. They should be persons of broad interest in and understanding of the peculiarities of scientific research and education.
(3) The agency should promote research through contracts or grants to organizations outside the Federal Government. It should not operate any laboratories of its own.
(4) Support of basic research in the public and private colleges, universities, and research institutes must leave the internal control of policy, personnel, and the method and scope of the research to the institutions themselves. This is of the utmost importance.
(5) While assuring complete independence and freedom for the nature, scope, and methodology of research carried on in the institutions receiving public funds, and while retaining discretion in the allocation of funds among such institutions, the Foundation proposed herein must be responsible to the President and Congress.
( 1 ) The Foundation is aware that continuity and stabihty are most impor- tant in the support of basic research. This can be achieved in two principal ways: one, by making the grant or contract for a term of years rather than for a single year and renewable; the other, by setting aside a revolving fund for the renewal of grants or contracts when the term expires, without reference to the annual appropriation. In the early years, budget limitations made it difficult for the Foundation to provide long-range support. As funds have become available, however, the amount and duration of the average grant has steadily increased. The value of the average research grant in fiscal year 1953 was $10,300, for an average duration of 1.9 years; and in fiscal year 1960 the average estimated value has risen to $30,500, with an axerage
* Under the terms of the Act biology and medical research were initially to be separate divisions. After consideration during the first year it was decided to combine these into a single division.
XX
duration of 2.3 years. Indixidual grants arc being made for as long as five years. Thus fuller support is being achicxed, and with grants of longer duration the trend is toward increasing stability.
(2) The National Science Foundation has been extraordinarily fortunate in the calibre of the people who have manned its regular staff, as well as in the advisors and consultants who have served untiringly. The National Science Board, as prescribed by law, is composed of persons "eminent in the fields of the basic sciences, medical science, engineering, agriculture, educa- tion or public affairs; . . . selected solelv on the basis of established records of distinguished service; and ... so selected as to provide representation of the views of the scientific leaders in all areas of the Nation." The substantive divi- sions ha\'e statutory dixisional committees of scientists eminent in their respec- tive fields or specialties, and a similar committee for the Office of Social Sci- ences was recentlv named. At the program level there is an advisory panel for each program which advises and counsels the program director and provides assistance in the formulation of the program in that particular discipline. The regular Foundation staff is selected largely from college and university fac- ulties— many serving on leave for the term of their appointment.
The Foundation maintains \'iable relationships with the scientific and edu- cational communities which make possible constant interchange of views and information.
(3) The Foundation is permitted to operate no laboratories of its own. Early in its history the decision was made that the grant, in general, affords the most effective means of support for basic research. As a result of the Foundation's efforts, furthermore, the Eightv-Fifth Congress passed Public Law 934, which extends the grant-making authority to appropriate Federal agencies and permits them, also, in the case of basic research grants, to vest title to research equipment with the institution receiving the grant, provided such equipment is not needed for government purposes.
The need for major facilities for basic research purposes — not wholly antici- pated by the Bush Report — has given rise to a situation in which the Founda- tion is supporting the construction and operation of such facilities by means of contracts with qualified organizations. For example, in astronomy, where urgent need exists for both photoelectric instruments and radiotelescopes, the Foundation is supporting two major facilities: the National Radio Astronomy Observatory at Green Bank, West Virginia, and the Kitt Peak National Ob- servatory near Tucson, Arizona. The former is being operated bv Associated Universities Incorporated, composed of nine eastern universities, which has had notable experience in the management of large-scale research in the opera- tion of the Brookhaven National Laboratory. The Kitt Peak Observatory is being constructed and operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, a group of eight uni\'ersities with major astronomy depart- ments, which was organized specifically for this purpose.
The Foundation has also contributed substantial support to other large- scale facilities for basic research, including high-speed computers, an ocean- ographic research vessel, and nuclear reactors.
An even more recent program, which is somewhat related to the facility program, is the development of graduate research laboratories under which
xxi
the Foundation provides funds for the reno\'ation and equipment of the re- search laboratories of graduate schools.
(4) In the operation of its program, the National Science Foundation has sought to hold to a minimum the burdens imposed upon academic institutions. Administrative requirements on grantees, fellows and contractors are the minimum consonant with accountability and responsibility for public funds. In the last analysis, however, the scientific and academic communities must be the final judge of the extent to which Federal support has been given without interference in internal affairs or burdensome controls. During its first ten years of operation the Foundation has had no serious complaints on this score.
(5) The Foundation has found its responsibilities to the President and the Congress in no wise incompatible with its independence and freedom of operation. Congress in its wisdom endowed the Foundation with an un- usually broad charter. It is so broad, in fact, that the Foundation from time to time has had to place its own interpretation on its Act and to make policy decisions regarding what not to do. This wide latitude has enabled the Foundation to approach the immense and challenging problems of modern science in innovational and experimental ways.
The Director enjoys cordial working relationships with the Special Assist- ant to the President and with the President's Science Advisory Committee. Whenever circumstances require it, he has direct access to the President. The Director is a member of the National Aeronautics and Space Council, the Federal Council on Science and Technology, a consultant to the President's Science Advisory Committee and a member of the Defense Science Board.
The foregoing summary probably represents the extent to which we are able to comment on the success with which these five fundamentals have been met. A more complete judgment must await the perspective of history.
So far as the operations of the Foundation are concerned, these have been substantially covered in the course of commenting on the major recommenda tions of Science, the Endless Frontier. Upon examination, the Foundation s programs, particularly in the area of research support and education in the sciences, will be found to correspond closely with the principal recommenda- tions of Science, the Endless Frontier.
An extremelv troublesome and difficult problem is the Foundation's relation to the development of national science policv and to the e\'aluation and corre- lation functions. The National Science Foundation Act authorizes and directs the Foundation —
to develop and encourage the pursuit of a national poHcy for the promotion of basic research and education in the sciences;
to evaluate scientific research programs undertaken by agencies of the Federal Govern- ment, and to correlate the Foundation's scientific research programs with those under- taken by individuals and by public and pri\'ate research groups; . . .
The number and variety of Federal research programs prompted the Foun- dation at the outset to consider what should be the responsibilities of the several Federal agencies with respect to the support of extramural research and de\'elopment in the sciences. After conferences bv NSF staff members with the Bureau of the Budget and other agencies, the Foundation's primary
xxii
recommendations were set forth in Executixe Order 10521 of March 17, 1954. The Order states that the Foundation "shall . . . recommend to the President policies for the promotion and support of basic research and education in the sciences, including policies with respect to furnishing guidance toward de- fining the res]X)nsibiHtics of the Federal Government in the conduct and support oi basic scientific research."
The Order further directs that the Foundation shall be increasingly re- sponsible for the support of general-purpose basic research but recognizes, also, the importance and desirability of other agencies' conducting and sup- porting basic research in fields closely associated to their missions. The Foundation is not expected to have responsibility for the applied research and de\ elopment programs of other agencies, and each agency is accountable for the scope and quality of its developmental effort.
With respect to the evaluation function, the Foundation has con- sistently pointed out that it is unrealistic to expect one agency to render judgment on the o\er-all performance of another agency unless an agency requests such help. The Foundation has chosen instead to approach the problem in terms of specific areas of science. Through close liaison and exchange of information with other science agencies, the Foundation has endeavored to identify areas that are receiving inadequate support or that require attention for other reasons. In this way it has been possible to bring about needed adjustments on an amicable, cooperative basis.
Executive Order 10807 of March 13, 1959, establishing the Federal Council on Science and Technology, also redefines the Foundation's role in the de- velopment of national science policy as applying only to basic research. Within this more specialized framework, the Foundation has been steadily formulating national science policies in the course of day-to-day operations, frequently on the basis of agreement and understanding with other agencies. Those who insist that policy must be handed down "ready made" in the form of a proclamation or edict do not understand the policy-making process. To be workable, policy must evolve on the basis of experience.
In 1959 the Foundation listed a compilation of some fifty science policies of a government-wide, national character that had been recommended by the Foundation during the previous eight years. Drawn from a variety of public statements and published reports the policies are grouped under the following broad categories: Basic Research; Government-University Relationships in the Conduct of Federally Sponsored Research; Indirect Costs; Education and Training; Federal Financial Support of Research Facilities; Government- Industry Relationships on Research; International Scientific Activities; Or- ganization and Administration of Research; Medical Research, and Scientific Information.
As background data for its own research programs and for policy formula- tion concerning the role of the Federal Government in the support of science, the Foundation early established a series of studies of the nature and extent of the national eflfort in research and development. Comprehensive surveys are made on a recurring basis of the research and development effort of in- dustry and of universities and other nonprofit institutions. The Foundation's analyses of the support of research and development by Federal agencies are
xxm
published annually in Federal Funds for Science. In addition to statistical surveys of the volume of research and development, the Foundation is also engaged in analytical studies of the close relationship that exists between research and development and the economy in order to achieve a fuller under- standing of the effects of research and development on various economic and industrial activities. The whole effort carries out the directive in the Execu- tive Order "to make comprehensive studies and recommendations regarding the Nation's research effort and its resources for scientific activities. . . ."
A final word about the Foundation's budget is perhaps of interest. The fol- lowing table summarizes Dr. Bush's projected budget for the National Re- search Foundation and the National Science Foundation's actual appropria- tion for its fifth operating year, fiscal year 1956; 1952 was the first year for which operating funds ($3.5 million) were appropriated for the Foundation by Congress.
(millions of dollars)
|
Activity "■ |
Bush's Budget for the National Re- search Foundation |
NSF funds ' 5th Year 9th Year |
|
|
1st Year |
5 th Year |
(FY 1956) (FY 1960) |
|
|
Division of Medical Research |
5.0 10.0 10.0 7.0 .5 1.0 |
20.0 50.0 20.0 29.0 1.0 2.5 |
3 3 |
|
Division of Natural Sciences '^ |
10.0 67.1 |
||
|
Division of National Defense Division of Scientific Personnel Education |
and |
3.4 64.5 |
|
|
Division of Publications & Scientific Collaboration * |
.4 5.4 |
||
|
Administration Other " |
1.3 6.2 .9 16.0 |
||
|
Total |
33.5 |
122.5 |
16.0 159.2 |
■^ Except for the "other" category, these were the activities enumerated by Dr. Bush in his projected budget for the Foundation.
= Fiscal year 1956 data from The Budget of the United States, 1956, p. 159. In fiscal year 1960 the Foundation's total adjusted appropriation amounts to $154.8 million. The total of $159.2 million, shown here, includes $4.4 million carried forward from fiscal year 1959. See part 3, Hearings before the Suhccnnnnttee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, Eighty-Sixth Congress, Second Session, Independent Offices Appropriations for 1961, for further details on program activities.
■ Funds administered by the Foundation's Biological and Medical Sciences Division are included in the total shown for the Division of Natural Sciences. This total also includes grants for the social sciences.
' Scientific information program activities are administered in the Foundation by the Office of Science Information Service.
"^Includes funds for facilities, other program activities, and all adjustments.
A glance at the chart indicates that by the end of the fifth year the Foun- dation was operating at a level fifty per cent lower than that recommended b\- Dr. Bush for the first year. By the fifth year the National Science Founda- tion was operating at about thirteen per cent of the level suggested by Dr. Bush for that year. By 1960, however, the Foundation's appropriation for all activities was $159,200,000, almost ten times the 1956 level.
xxiv
In order to understand the whole support situation it is necessary to look beyond a bare statistical comparison of Dr. Bush's recommendations and the Foundation's financial resources. As pre\'iously mentioned, Dr. Bush had visualized the Foundation as the sole support of basic research in the Govern- ment. This has been far from the fact. As already noted, a number of agencies began actively to support basic research during the five years of legislative debate of the National Science Foundation bills. It is estimated that in 1956 the Federal Government obligated about $200 million for basic research. Of this amount somewhat less than $120 million went for basic research related to "national defense" (Department of Defense $72 million, and Atomic Energy Commission $45 million). Twenty-six million dollars represents the total basic research reported bv the National Institutes of Health for the year. The remainder of the $200 million is variously distrib- uted among the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Interior, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, National Science Foundation, and the Smithsonian Institution.
Rough estimates indicate that about $115 million of the $200 million total 1956 obligation for basic research went to nonprofit institutions, including colleges and universities, research centers, research institutions, hospitals, and so on. Thus it would appear from these estimates that although the Founda- tion itself had not reached the projected level of basic research support pro- posed for its fifth year the Federal Government as a whole was providing the kind of basic research support visualized by Dr. Bush at a level somewhat higher than he projected.
In the history of the National Science Foundation's appropriations one is able to trace something of the public reaction to the international and national political situation. A $15 million limit on the Foundation's appropriations had been written into the law.* For its first year of operations, however, Congress appropriated to the Foundation only a small fraction of that amount — $3.5 million. Appropriations for the Foundation climbed slowly but steadily as Congress gained confidence in its operations and possibly also as a result of some dawning recognition on the part of the public of the importance of basic research. By the fifth year, 1956, the appropriation was up to $16 million. In the summer of 1955 the Foundation published a National Re- search Council study, Soviet Professional Manpower, which drew sobering comparisons between the rates at w^hich the U. S. and the U.S.S.R. are train- ing scientific and technical manpower. One result of these findings was that the Congress sharply increased Foundation funds for education in the sciences. The Foundation appropriation for fiscal year 1957, $40 million, more than doubled that of the preceding year. The next large increment came in 1959 when $130 million was appropriated in the wake of intense national concern over the Russian sputnik and all that it implied. Funds available for fiscal year 1960 total more than $159 million.
What can be said in summation? The principal mechanisms recommended by Dr. Bush for the support and encouragement of basic research and educa- tion in the sciences have been realized. All branches of the Federal Govern- ment have recognized the importance of these matters to the public welfare,
* This limitation was repealed by Act of Aug. 8, 1953 (67 Stat. 488).
XXV
and support is available in a variety of forms from a variety of sources. The universities, which have been the principal recipients of support, have ex- pressed their approval of this diversity in the sources of support. Such diver- sitv has meant more funds, greater flexibility, and the possibility of more than one approach.
It is difficult to say what the optimum level of support should be except to recognize that at some point a finite limit is set by the number of competent investigators available. At the present time the ratio of basic research funds to the over-all research and development funds of the Federal budget is something like seven per cent. Undoubtedly the ratio should be higher.
We have the organization; to a considerable extent v\'e ha\'e the dollars, people, and facilities. Can we conclude, then, that the objectives of the Bush Report have been fully met? When one has been verv close to the scene it is not possible to speak with complete objectivity and detachment. I think it can be said that the Government is doing well, both in the pro- vision of funds and in the exercise of leadership. There remains, however, one conspicuous difficulty to be overcome. It is that people generally still do not clearly understand and appreciate the importance of education and the importance of science as distinguished from technology. As Dr. Bush so trenchantly observed:
The distinction between applied and pure research is not a hard and fast one, and industrial scientists may tackle specific problems from broad fundamental viewpoints. But it is important to emphasize that there is a perverse law governing research: under the pressure for immediate resuks, and unless deliberate policies are set up to guard against this, applied research invariably drives out pure.
This moral is clear: It is pure research which deserves and requires special protection and specially assured support.
It must be admitted that as a people and a Nation we have not been prop- erly appreciative of intellectual achievement. This awareness and apprecia- tion is not something the Government can legislate into being. We must build it into our national consciousness through our educational system, and until we do, science and all other forms of intellectual activity will lack the firm foundation they require.
XXVI
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
Office of Scientific Research and Development
1530 P Street, NW.
Washington 25, D. C.
July 5, 1945.
Dear Mr. President:
In a letter dated November 17, 1944, President Roosevelt requested my recommendations on the following points:
(1) What can be done, consistent with military security, and with the prior approval of the military authorities, to make known to the world as soon as possible the contributions which have been made during our war effort to scientific knowledge?
(2) With particular reference to the war of science against disease, what can be done now to organize a program for continuing in the future the work which has been done in medicine and related sciences?
(3) What can the Government do now and in the future to aid research activities bv public and private organizations?
(4) Can an effective program be proposed for discovering and developing scientific talent in American youth so that the continuing future of scientific research in this country mav be assured on a level comparable to what has been done during the war?
It is clear from President Roosevelt's letter that in speaking of science he had in mind the natural sciences, including biology and medicine, and I have so interpreted his questions. Progress in other fields, such as the social sciences and the humanities, is likewise important; but the program for science presented in my report warrants immediate attention.
In seeking answers to President Roosevelt's questions I have had the assistance of distinguished committees specially qualified to advise in respect to these subjects. The committees have given these matters the serious attention thev deserve; indeed, they have regarded this as an opportunity to participate in shaping the policy of the countrv with reference to scien- tific research. They have had many meetings and have submitted formal reports. I have been in close touch with the work of the committees and with their members throughout. I have examined all of the data they assembled and the suggestions thev submitted on the points raised in Presi- dent Roose\'elt's letter.
1
Although the report which I submit herewith is my own, the facts, con- clusions, and recommendations are based on the findings of the committees which have studied these questions. Since my report is necessarily brief, I am including as appendices the full reports of the committees.
A single mechanism for implementing the recommendations of the several committees is essential. In proposing such a mechanism I have departed somewhat from the specific recommendations of the committees, but I have since been assured that the plan I am proposing is fully acceptable to the committee members.
The pioneer spirit is still vigorous within this Nation. Science offers a largelv unexplored hinterland for the pioneer who has the tools for his task. The rewards of such exploration both for the Nation and the individual are great. Scientific progress is one essential kev to our security as a nation, to our better health, to more jobs, to a higher standard of living, and to our cultural progress.
Respectfully vours,
(s) V. Bush, Director.
The President of the United States, The White House, Washington, D. C.
PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT'S LETTER
The White House Washington, D. C. November 17, 1944
Dear Dr. Bush:
The Office of Scientific Research and Development, of which you are the Director, represents a unique experiment of team-work and cooperation in coordinating scientific research and in applying existing scientific knowledge to the solution of the technical problems paramount in war. Its work has been conducted in the utmost secrecy and carried on without public recog- nition of anv kind; but its tangible results can be found in the communiques coming in from the battlefronts all over the world. Some day the full story of its achievements can be told.
There is, howe\er, no reason whv the lessons to be found in this experi- ment cannot be profitablv employed in times of peace. The information, the techniques, and the research experience developed by the Office of Scientific Research and Development and bv the thousands of scientists in the uni- versities and in private industry, should be used in the days of peace ahead for the improvement of the national health, the creation of new enterprises bringing new jobs, and the betterment of the national standard of living.
It is with that objectixe in mind that I would like to ha\'e your recom- mendations on the following four major points:
First: What can be done, consistent with military security, and with the prior approval of the military authorities, to make known to the world as soon as possible the contributions which have been made during our war effort to scientific knowledge?
The diffusion of such knowledge should help us stimulate new enterprises, provide jobs for our returning servicemen and other workers, and make pos- sible great strides for the improvement of the national well-being.
Second: With particular reference to the war of science against disease, what can be done now to organize a program for continuing in the future the work which has been done in medicine and related sciences?
The fact that the annual deaths in this country from one or two diseases alone are far in excess of the total number of lives lost by us in battle during this war should make us conscious of the duty we owe future generations. Third: What can the Government do now and in the future to aid research activities by public and pri\'ate organizations? The proper roles of public and of private research, and their interrelation, should be carefully considered.
FoTirth: Can an effective program be proposed for discoxering and devel- oping scientific talent in American youth so that the continuing future of scientific research in this country may be assured on a level comparable to what has been done during the war?
New frontiers of the mind are before us, and if they are pioneered with the same vision, boldness, and drive with which we have waged this war we can create a fuller and more fruitful employment and a fuller and more fruitful life.
I hope that, after such consultation as you may deem advisable with your associates and others, vou can let me have your considered judgment on these matters as soon as convenient — reporting on each when you are ready, rather than waiting for completion of your studies in all.
Very sincerelv vours,
(s) Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Dr. Vannevar Bush,
Office of Scientific Research and Development,
Washington, D. C.
SUMMARY OF THE REPORT
Scientific Progress is Essential
Progress in the war against disease depends upon a flow of new scientific knowledge. New products, new industries, and more jobs require continuous additions to knowledge of the laws of nature, and the application of that knowledge to practical purposes. Similarly, our defense against aggression demands new knowledge so that we can develop new and improved weapons. This essential, new knowledge can be obtained onlv through basic scientific research.
Science can be effective in the national welfare onlv as a member of a team, whether the conditions be peace or war. But without scientific prog- ress no amount of achievement in other directions can insure our health, prosperity, and security as a nation in the modern world.
For the War Against Disease
We have taken great strides in the war against disease. The death rate for all diseases in the Armv, including overseas forces, has been reduced from 14.1 per thousand in the last war to 0.6 per thousand in this war. In the last 40 vears life expectancy has increased from 49 to 65 vears, largelv as a consequence of the reduction in the death rates of infants and children. But we are far from the goal. The annual deaths from one or two diseases far exceed the total number of American lives lost in battle during this war. A large fraction of these deaths in our civilian population cut short the useful lives of our citizens. Approximately 7,000,000 persons in the United States are mentally ill and their care costs the public over $175,000,000 a vear. Clearly much illness remains for which adequate means of prevention and cure are not vet known.
The responsibility for basic research in medicine and the underlying sciences, so essential to progress in the war against disease, falls primarily upon the medical schools and universities. Yet we find that the traditional sources of support for medical research in the medical schools and universi- ties, largely endowment income, foundation grants, and private donations, are diminishing and there is no immediate prospect of a change in this trend. Meanwhile, the cost of medical research has been rising. If we are to main-
tain the progress in medicine which has marked the last 25 years, the Gov- ernment should extend financial support to basic medical research in the medical schools and in universities.
For Our ISational Security
The bitter and dangerous battle against the U-boat was a battle of scien- tific techniques — and our margin of success was dangerously small. The new eyes which radar has supplied can sometimes be blinded by new scien- tific developments. V— 2 was countered only by capture of the launching sites.
We cannot again relv on our allies to hold off the enemy while we struggle to catch up. There must be more — and more adequate — military research in peacetime. It is essential that the civilian scientists continue in peacetime some portion of those contributions to national security which they ha\'e made so effectively during the war. This can best be done through a civilian-controlled organization with close liaison with the Armv and Navy, but with funds direct from Congress, and the clear power to initiate military research which will supplement and strengthen that carried on directly under the control of the Armv and Navv-
And for the Public Welfare
One of our hopes is that after the war there will be full employment. To reach that goal the full creative and productive energies of the American people must be released. To create more jobs we must make new and better and cheaper products. We want plentv of new, vigorous enterprises. But new products and processes are not born full-grown. They are founded on new principles and new conceptions which in turn result from basic scien- tific research. Basic scientific research is scientific capital. Moreover, we cannot any longer depend upon Europe as a major source of this scientific capital. Clearly, more and better scientific research is one essential to the achievement of our goal of full employment.
How do we increase this scientific capital? First, we must have plenty of men and women trained in science, for upon them depends both the creation of new knowledge and its application to practical purposes. Second, we must strengthen the centers of basic research which are principally the colleges, universities, and research institutes. These institutions provide the environ- ment which is most conducive to the creation of new scientific knowledge and least under pressure for immediate, tangible results. With some notable exceptions, most research in industry and in Government involves applica- tion of existing scientific knowledge to practical problems. It is only the colleges, universities, and a few research institutes that devote most of their research efforts to expanding the frontiers of knowledge.
Expenditures for scientific research by industry and Goyernment increased from $140,000,000 in 1930 to $309,000,000 in 1940. Those for the colleges and universities increased from $20,000,000 to $31,000,000, while those for
research institutes declined from $5,200,000 to $4,500,000 during the same period. If the colleges, universities, and research institutes are to meet the rapidly increasing demands of industry and Government for new scientific knowledge, their basic research should be strengthened by use of public funds.
For science to serve as a powerful factor in our national welfare, applied research both in Government and in industry must be vigorous. To improve the quality of scientific research within the Government, steps should be taken to modifv the procedures for recruiting, classifying, and compensating scientific personnel in order to reduce the present handicap of governmental scientific bureaus in competing with industry and the universities for top- grade scientific talent. To provide coordination of the common scientific activities of these governmental agencies as to policies and budgets, a perma- nent Science Advisorv Board should be created to advise the executive and legislative branches of Government on these matters.
The most important ways in which the Government can promote industrial research are to increase the flow of new scientific knowledge through support of basic research, and to aid in the development of scientific talent. In addi- tion, the Government should provide suitable incentives to industry to con- duct research (a) by clarification of present uncertainties in the Internal Revenue Code in regard to the deductibility of research and development expenditures as current charges against net income, and (h^ by strengthen- ing the patent svstem so as to eliminate uncertainties which now bear heavily on small industries and so as to prevent abuses which reflect discredit upon a basically sound svstem. In addition, ways should be found to cause the benefits of basic research to reach industries which do not now utilize new scientific knowledge.
We Must Renew Our Scientific Talent
The responsibility for the creation of new scientific knowledge — and for most of its application — rests on that small body of men and women who understand the fundamental laws of nature and are skilled in the techniques of scientific research. We shall have rapid or slow advance on any scientific frontier depending on the number of highly qualified and trained scientists exploring it.
The deficit of science and technology students who, but for the war, would have received bachelor's degrees is about 150,000. It is estimated that the deficit of those obtaining advanced degrees in these fields will amount in 1955 to about 17,000 — for it takes at least 6 years from college entry— te^ achieve a doctor's degree or its equivalent in science or engineering. The real ceiling on our productivity of new scientific knowledge and its applica- tion in the war against disease, and the development of new products and new industries, is the number of trained scientists available.
The training of a scientist is a long and expensive process. Studies clearly show that there are talented individuals in every part of the population, but with few exceptions, those without the means of buying higher education
go without it. If ability, and not the circumstance of family fortune, deter- mines who shall receive higher education in science, then we shall be assured of constantly impro\'ing quality at eyery leyel of scientific activity. The Goyernment should provide a reasonable number of undergraduate scholarships and graduate fellowships in order to develop scientific talent in American youth. The plans should be designed to attract into science only that proportion of youthful talent appropriate to the needs of science in relation to the other needs of the Nation for high abilities.
Including Those in Uniform
The most immediate prospect of making up the deficit in scientific per- sonnel is to develop the scientific talent in the generation now in uniform. Even if we should start now to train the current crop of high-school gradu- ates none would complete graduate studies before 1951. The Armed Services should comb their records for men who, prior to or during the war, have given evidence of talent for science, and make prompt arrangements, con- sistent with current discharge plans, for ordering those who remain in uni- form, as soon as militarily possible, to duty at institutions here and overseas where they can continue their scientific education. Moreover, the Services should see that those who study o\'erseas have the benefit of the latest scientific information resulting from research during the war.
The Lid Must Be Lifted
While most of the war research has in\'olved the application of existing scientific knowledge to the problems of war, rather than basic research, there has been accumulated a \'ast amount of information relating to the applica- tion of science to particular problems. Much of this can be used by industry. It is also needed for teaching in the colleges and universities here and in the Armed Forces Institutes overseas. Some of this information must remain secret, but most of it should be made public as soon as there is ground for belief that the enemy will not be able to turn it against us in this war. To select that portion which should be made public, to coordinate its release, and definitely to encourage its publication, a Board composed of Army, Navy, and civilian scientific members should be promptly established.
A Program for Action
The Government should accept new responsibilities for ]:)romoting the flow of new scientific knowledge and the de\'elopmcnt of scientific talent in our youth. These responsibilities are the proper concern of the Government, for thev xitallv affect our health, our jobs, and our naticjnal security. It is in keeping also with basic United States policy that the Government should foster the opening of new frontiers and this is the modern way to do it. For
8
many years the Government has wisely suppoi'ted research in the agricul- tural colleges and the benefits have been great. The time has come when such support should be extended to other fields.
The effective discharge of these new responsibilities will require the full attention of some over-all agency devoted to that purpose. There is not now in the permanent governmental structure receiving its funds from Congress an agency adapted to supplementing the support of basic research in the colleges, uni\'ersities, and research institutes, both in medicine and the natural sciences, adapted to supporting research on new weapons for both Services, or adapted to administering a program of science scholarships and fellowships.
Therefore I recommend that a new agency for these purposes be estab- lished. Such an agencv should be composed of persons of broad interest and experience, having an understanding of the peculiarities of scientific research and scientific education. It should have stability of funds so that long-range programs may be undertaken. It should recognize that freedom of inquiry must be preserved and should leave internal control of policy, personnel, and the method and scope of research to the institutions in which it is carried on. It should be fully responsible to the President and through him to the Congress for its program.
Early action on these recommendations is imperative if this Nation is to meet the challenge of science in the crucial years ahead. On the wisdom with which we bring science to bear in the war against disease, in the crea- tion of new industries, and in the strengthening of our Armed Forces depends in large measure our future as a nation.
Part One
INTRODUCTION
Scientific Progress Is Essential
We all know how much the new drug, penicillin, has meant to our griev- ously wounded men on the grim battlefronts of this war— the countless lives it has saved — the incalculable suffering which its use has prevented. Science and the great practical genius of this Nation made this achievement possible.
Some of us know the vital role which radar has played in bringing the Allied Nations to victory over Nazi Germany and in driving the Japanese steadilv back from their island bastions. Again it was painstaking scientific research over manv years that made radar possible.
What we often forget are the millions of pay envelopes on a peacetime Saturdav night which are filled because new products and new industries have provided jobs for countless Americans. Science made that possible, too.
In 1939 millions of people were emploved in industries which did not even exist at the close of the last war — radio, air conditioning, rayon and other synthetic fibers, and plastics are examples of the products of these industries. But these things do not mark the end of progress — they are but the begin- ning if we make full use of our scientific resources. New manufacturing industries can be started and many older industries greatly strengthened and expanded if we continue to studv nature's laws and apply new knowledge to practical purposes.
Great advances in agriculture are also based upon scientific research. Plants which are more resistant to disease and are adapted to short growing seasons, the pre\'ention and cure of livestock diseases, the control of our insect enemies, better fertilizers, and improved agricultural practices, all stem from painstak- ing scientific research.
Advances in science when put to practical use mean more jobs, higher wages, shorter hours, more abundant crops, more leisure for recreation, for studv, for learning how to live without the deadening drudgery whi'ch has been the burden of the common man for ages past. Ad\'ances in science wdll also bring higher standards of living, will lead to the pre\ention or cure of diseases, will promote conser\'ation of our limited national resources, and will assure means of defense against aggression. But to achieve these objectives — to secure a high level of emplovment, to maintain a position of world lead- ership— the flow of new scientific knowledge must be both continuous and substantial.
Our population increased from 75 million to 130 million between 1900
10
and 1940. In some countries comparable increases have been accompanied by famine. In this country the increase has been accompanied by more abundant Food suppK', better lixing, more leisure, longer life, and better health. 1 his is, largely, the product of three factors — the free play of initia- tive of a vigorous people under democrac)', the heritage of great natural wealth, and the advance of science and its application.
Science, by itself, provides no panacea for individual, social, and economic ills. It can be effective in the national welfare onlv as a member of a team, whether the conditions be peace or war. But without scientific progress no amount of achievement in other directions can insure our health, prosperity, and securitv as a nation in the modern world.
Science Is a Proper Concern of Government
It has been basic United States policy that Government should foster the opening of new frontiers. It opened the seas to clipper ships and furnished land for pioneers. Although these frontiers have more or less disappeared, the frontier of science remains. It is in keeping with the American tradition — one which has made the United States great — that new frontiers shall be made accessible for development by all American citizens.
Moreover, since health, well-being, and security are proper concerns of Government, scientific progress is, and must be, of vital interest to Govern- ment. Without scientific progress the national health would deteriorate; without scientific progress we could not hope for improvement in our stand- ard of living or for an increased number of jobs for our citizens; and without scientific progress we could not have maintained our liberties against tyranny.
Government Relations to Science — Past and Future
From early days the Government has taken an active interest in scientific matters. During the nineteenth century the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the Naval Observatory, the Department of Agriculture, and the Geological Sur- vey were established. Through the Land Grant Gollege Acts the Govern- ment has supported research in state institutions for more than 80 vears on a gradually increasing scale. Since 1900 a large number of scientific agencies have been established within the Federal Government, until in 1939 they numbered more than 40.
Much of the scientific research done by Government agencies is inter- mediate in character between the two types of work commonly referred to as basic and applied research. Almost all Government scientific work has ultimate practical objectives but, in many fields of broad national concern, it commonly involves long-teyn investigation of a fundamental nature. Gen- erally speaking, the scientific agencies of Government are not so concerned with immediate practical objectives as are the laboratories of industry nor, on the other hand, are they as free to explore any natural phenomena without regard to possible economic applications as are the educational and private research institutions. Government scientific agencies have splendid records of achievement, but they are limited in function.
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We have no national policy for science. The Government has only begun to utilize science in the Nation's welfare. There is no body within the Gov- ernment charged with formulating or executing a national science policy. There are no standing committees of the Congress devoted to this important subject. Science has been in the wings. It should be brought to the center of the stage — for in it lies much of our hope for the future.
There are areas of science in which the public interest is acute but which are likely to be cultivated inadequately if left without more support than will come from private sources. These areas — such as research on military prob- lems, agriculture, housing, public health, certain medical, research, and re- search involving expensive capital facilities beyond the capacity of private institutions — should be advanced by active Government support. To date, with the exception of the intensive war research conducted by the Office of Scientific Research and Development, such support has been meager and intermittent.
For reasons presented in this report we are entering a period when science needs and deserves increased support from public funds.
Freedom of Inquiry Must Be Preserved
The publicly and privately supported colleges, universities, and research institutes are the centers of basic research. They are the wellsprings of knowledge and understanding. As long as they are vigorous and healthy and their scientists are free to pursue the truth wherever it may lead, there will be a flow of new scientific knowledge to those who can apply it to practical problems in Government, in industrv, or elsewhere.
Many of the lessons learned in the war-time application of science under Government can be profitably applied in peace. The Government is pecul- iarly fitted to perform certain functions, such as the coordination and support of broad programs on problems of great national importance. But we must proceed with caution in carrying over the methods which work in wartime to the very different conditions of peace. We must remove the rigid controls which we have had to impose, and recover freedom of inquiry and that healthy competitive scientific spirit so necessary for expansion of the frontiers of scientific knowledge.
Scientific progress on a broad front results from the free play of free intellects, working on subjects of their own choice, in the manner dictated by their curiosity for exploration of the unknown. Freedom of inquiry must be preserved under any plan for Government support of science in accord- ance with the Five Fundamentals listed on page 32.
The studv of the momentous questions presented in President Roosevelt's letter has been made by able committees working diligently. This report presents conclusions and recommendations based upon the studies of these committees which appear in full as the appendices. Only in the creation of one over-all mechanism rather than several does this report depart from the specific recommendations of the committees. The members of the committees have reviewed the recommendations in regard to the single mechanism and have found this plan thoroughly acceptable.
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Part Two
THE WAR AGAINST DISEASE
In War
The death rate for all diseases in the Army, including the overseas forces, has been reduced from 14.1 per thousand in the last war to 0.6 per thousand in this war.
Such ravaging diseases as yellow fever, dysentery, typhus, tetanus, pneu- monia, and meningitis have been all but conquered by penicillin and the sulfa drugs, the insecticide DDT, better vaccines, and improved hvgienic measures. Malaria has been controlled. There has been dramatic progress in surgery.
The striking advances in medicine during the war have heen possible only because we had a large backlog of scientific data accumulated through basic research in many scientific fields in the years before the war.
In Peace
In the last 40 years life expectancy in the United States has increased from 49 to 65 years largely as a consequence of the reduction in the death rates of infants and children; in the last 20 years the death rate from the diseases of childhood has been reduced 87 percent.
Diabetes has been brought under control by insulin, pernicious anemia by liver extracts; and» the once widespread deficiency diseases have been much reduced, even in the lowest income groups, by accessory food factors and improvement of diet. Notable advances have been made in the early diagnosis of cancer, and in the surgical and radiation treatment of the disease.
These results have been achieved through a great amount of basic research in medicine and the preclinical sciences, and by the dissemination of this new scientific knowledge through the physicians and medical services and public health agencies of the country. In this cooperative endeavor the pharmaceutical industry has played an important role, especially during the war. All of the medical and public health groups share credit for these achievements; they form interdependent members of a team.
Progress in combating disease defends ufon an expanding body of new scientifc knowledge.
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Unsolved Problems
As President Roosevelt observed, the annual deaths from one or two diseases are far in excess of the total number of American lives lost in battle during this war. A large fraction of these deaths in our civilian population cut short the useful lives of our citizens. This is our present position despite the fact that in the last three decades notable progress has been made in civilian medicine. The reduction in death rate from diseases of childhood has shifted the emphasis to the middle and old age groups, particularly to the malignant diseases and the degenerative processes prominent in later life. Cardiovascular disease, including chronic disease of the kidneys, arterio- sclerosis, and cerebral hemorrhage, now account for 45 percent of the deaths in the United States. Second are the infectious diseases, and third is cancer. Added to these are manv maladies (for example, the common cold, arthritis, asthma and hav fever, peptic ulcer) which, though infrequentlv fatal, cause incalculable disability.
Another aspect of the changing emphasis is the increase of mental diseases. Approximately 7 million persons in the United States are mentally ill; more than one-third of the hospital beds are occupied by such persons, at a cost of $175 million a year. Each year 125,000 new mental cases are hospitalized.
N ot with St an ding great progress in prolonging the span of life and in relief of suffering, much illness remains for which adequate means of prevention and cure are not yet known. While additional physicians, hospitals, and health programs are needed, their full usefidness cannot he attained unless we enlarge our knowledge of the human organism and the nature of disease. Any extension of medical facilities must he accompanied hy an expanded program of medical training and research.
Broad and Basic Studies Needed
Discoveries pertinent to medical progress have often come from remote and unexpected sources, and it is certain that this will be true in the future. It is whollv probable that progress in the treatment of cardiovascular disease, renal disease, cancer, and similar refractory diseases will be made as the result of fundamental discoveries in subjects unrelated to those diseases, and perhaps entirelv unexpected by the investigator. Further progress requires that the entire front of medicine and the underlving sciences of chemistrv, phvsics, anatomy, biochemistry, phvsiologv, pharmacology, bacteriology, pathology, parasitology, etc., be broadly developed.
Progress in the war against disease residts from discoveries in remote and unexpected fields of medicine and the underlying sciences.
Coordinated Attack on Special Problems
Penicillin reached our troops in time to save countless li\es because the Government coordinated and supported the program of research and develop- ment on the drug. The development moved from the early laboratory stage to large scale production and use in a fraction of the time it would have
14
taken without such leadership. The search for hctter anti-malarials, which proceeded at a moderate temjx) for many years, has been accelerated enor- mously by Government support during the war. Other examples can be cited in which medical progress has been similarly advanced. In achieving these results, the Government has provided over-all coordination and support; it has not dictated how the work should be done within any cooperating institution.
Discovery of new therapeutic agents and methods usually results from basic studies in medicine and the underlying sciences. The development of such materials and methods to the point at which they become available- to medical practitioners requires teamwork involving the medical schools, the science departments of universities. Government and the pharmaceutical industry. Government initiative, support, and coordination can be very efifective in this development phase.
Governvient initiative and swpfort for the develofment of newly discov- ered therapeutic materials and methods can reduce the time required to bring the benefits to the fublic.
Action is Necessary
The primary place for medical research is in the medical schools and uni- versities. In some cases coordinated direct attack on special problems may be made by teams of investigators, supplementing similar attacks carried on by the Army, Navy, Public Health Service, and other organizations. Apart from teaching, however, the primarv obligation of the medical schools and univer- sities is to continue the traditional function of such institutions, namely, to provide the individual worker with an opportunitv for free, untrammeled study of nature, in the directions and bv the methods suggested by his inter- ests, curiosity, and imagination. The history of medical science teaches clearly the supreme importance of affording the prepared mind complete freedom for the exercise of initiative. It is the special province of the medical schools and universities to foster medical research in this way — a duty which cannot be shifted to Government agencies, industrial organizations, or to any other institutions.
Where clinical investigations of the human body are required, the medical schools are in a unique position, because of their close relationship to teaching hospitals, to integrate such investigations with the work of the departments of preclinical science, and to impart new knowledge to physicians in training. At the same time, the teaching hospitals are especially well qualified to carry on medical research because of their close connection with the medical schools, on which they depend for staff and supervision.
Between World War I and World War II the United States overtook all other nations in medical research and assumed a position of world leadership. To a considerable extent this progress reflected the liberal financial support from universitv endowment income, gifts from individuals, and foundation grants in the 20's. The growth of research departments in medical schools has been verv uneven, however, and in consequence most of the important work has been done in a few large schools. This should be corrected by build-
15
ing up the weaker institutions, especially in regions which now have no strong medical research activities.
The traditional sources of support for medical research, largely endowment income, foundation grants, and private donations, are diminishing, and there is no immediate prospect of a change in this trend. Meanwhile, research costs have stcadiK' risen. More elaborate and expensive equipment is required, supplies are more costlv, and the wages of assistants are higher. Industry is onlv to a limited extent a source of funds for basic medical research.
It is clear that if we are to maintain the progress in medicine which has marked the last 25 years, the Government shoidd extend financial support to basic medical research in the medical schools and in the universities, through grants both for research and for fellowships. The amotint which can he effec- tively spent in the first year shotdd not exceed 5 million dollars. After a pro- gram is under way perhaps 20 million dollars a year can he spent effectively.
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Part Three
SCIENCE AND THE PUBLIC WELFARE
Relation to National Security
In this war it has become clear beyond all doubt that scientific research is absolutely essential to national security. The bitter and dangerous battle against the U-boat was a battle of scientific techniques — and our margin of success was dangerously small. The new eves which radar supplied to our fighting forces quickly evoked the development of scientific countermeasures which could often blind them. This again represents the ever continuing battle of techniques. The V— 1 attack on London was finally defeated by three devices developed during this war and used superbly in the field. V— 2 was countered only by capture of the launching sites.
The Secretaries of War and Navy recently stated in a joint letter to the National Academy of Sciences:
This war emphasizes three facts of supreme importance to national security: (1) Powerful new tactics of defense and offense are developed around new weapons created by scientific and engineering research; (2) the competitive time element in developing those weapons and tactics may be decisive; (3) war is increasingly total war, in which the armed services must be supplemented by active participation of every element of civilian population.
To insure continued preparedness along farsighted technical lines, the research scien- tists of the country must be called upon to continue in peacetime some substantial portion of those types of contribution to national security which they have made so effectively during the stress of the present war * * *.
There must be more — and more adequate — military research during peace- time. We cannot again rely on our allies to hold off the enemy while we struggle to catch up. Further, it is clear that only the Government can under- take military research; for it must be carried on in secret, much of it has no commercial value, and it is expensive. The obligation of Government to support research on military problems is inescapable.
iModern war requires the use of the most advanced scientific techniques. Many of the leaders in the development of radar are scientists who before the war had been exploring the nucleus of the atom. While there must be increased emphasis on science in the future training of officer^s lor both the Army and Navy, such men cannot be expected to be specialists in scientific
17
research. Therefore, a professional partnership between the officers in the Services and civiHan scientists is needed.
The Armv and Na\v should continue to carry on research and de\'elopment on the improvement of current weapons. For manv years the National Ad\'isory Committee for Aeronautics has supplemented the work of the Army and Navy by conducting basic research on the problems of flight. There should now be permanent ci\'ilian acti\'ity to supplement the research work of the Services in other scientific fields so as to carry on in time of peace some part of the actixities of the emergency wartime Office of Scientific Research and De\'elopment.
Military preparedness reciiiires a pernianeiit independent, civilian-contyoUed organization, having close liaison with the Army and Navy, but with funds directly jrovi Congress and with the clear power to initiate military research which will supplement and strengthen that carried on directly under the control of the Army and Navy.
I Science and Jobs
One of our hopes is that after the v\'ar there will be full employment, and that the production of goods and ser\'ices will ser\'e to raise our standard of living. We do not know yet how we shall reach that goal, but it is certain that it can be achieved only by releasing the full creati\'e and productive energies of the American people.
Surely we will not get there by standing still, merely by making the same things we made before and selling them at the same or higher prices. We will not get ahead in international trade unless we offer new and more attractive and cheaper products.
Where will these new products come from? How will we find ways to make better products at lower cost? The answer is clear. There must be a stream of new scientific knowledge to turn the wheels of pri\'ate and public enterprise. There must be plenty of men and women trained in science and technology for upon them depend both the creation of new knowledge and its application to practical purposes.
More and better scientific research is essential to the achievement of our goal of full employment.
The Importance of Basic Research
Basic research is performed without thought of practical ends. It results in general knowledge and an understanding of nature and its laws. This general knowledge provides the means of answering a large number of im- portant practical problems, though it ma\' not give a complete specific answer to any one of them. The function of applied research is to provide such complete answers. The scientist doing basic research may not be at all inter- ested in the practical applications of his work, yet the further progress of industrial development would e\entually stagnate if basic scientific research were long neolccted.
One of the peculiarities of basic science is the variety of paths which lead
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to productive advance. Many of the most important discoveries have come as a result of experiments undertaken with xerv different purposes in mind. Statistically it is certain that important and highly useful discoxeries will result from some fraction of the undertakings in hasic science; hut the results of any one particular in\ estimation cannot be predicted with accuracy.
Basic research leads to new knowledge. It provides scientific capital. It creates the iund Irom which the practical applications of knowledge must be draw n. New products and new processes do not appear full-grown. They are founded on new principles and new conceptions, which in turn are painstakingK' dex'cloped by research in the purest realms of science.
Toda\', it is truer than e\er that basic research is the pacemaker of tech- nological progress. In the nineteenth century, Yankee mechanical ingenuity, building largely upon the basic discoveries of European scientists, could greath' advance the technical arts. Now the situation is different.
A uatiou which depends upon others for its new basic scientific knowledge will he slow in its industrial progress and weak in its competitive position in world trade, regardless of its mechanical skill.
Centers of Basic Research
Publicly and pri\'ately supported colleges and universities and the endowed research institutes must furnish both the new scientific knowledge and the trained research workers. These institutions are uniquely qualified by tradi- tion and h\ their special characteristics to carry on basic research. They are charged with the responsibility of conser\'ing the knowledge accumulated by the past, imparting that knowledge to students, and contributing new knowledge of all kinds. It is chiefly in these institutions that scientists may work in an atmosphere which is relatively free from the adverse pressure of con\'ention, prejudice, or commercial necessity. At their best they provide the scientific worker with a strong sense of solidarity and security, as well as a substantial degree of personal intellectual freedom. All of these factors are of great importance in the development of new knowledge, since much of new knowledge is certain to arouse opposition because of its tendency to challenge current beliefs or practice.
Industry is generally inhibited by preconceived goals, by its own clearly defined standards, and by the constant pressure of commercial necessity. Satis- factory progress in basic science seldom occurs under conditions prevailing in the normal industrial laboratory. There are some notable exceptions, it is true, but even in such cases it is rarely possible to match the universities in respect to the freedom which is so important to scientific discovery.
To serve effecti\'ely as the centers of basic research these institutions must be strong and healthy. They must attract our best scientists as teachers and investigators. They must offer research opportunities and sufficient compen- sation to enable them to compete with industry and government for the cream of scientific talent.
During the past 25 years there has been a great increase in industrial research involving the application of scientific knowledge to a multitude of practical purposes — thus pro\'iding new products, new industries, new invest-- ment opportunities, and millions of jobs. During the same period research
19
within Government — again largely applied research — has also been greatly expanded. In the decade from 1930 to 1940 expenditures for industrial research increased from $116,000,000 to $240,000,000 and those for scientific research in Government rose from $24,000,000 to $69,000,000. During the same period expenditures for scientific research in the colleges and univer- sities increased from $20,000,000 to $31,000,000, while those in the endowed research institutes declined from $5,200,000 to $4,500,000. These are the best estimates available. The figures have been taken from a variety of sources and arbitrary definitions have necessarily been applied, but it is believed that they may be accepted as indicating the following trends:
(a) Expenditures for scientific research by industry and Government — almost entirely applied research — have more than doubled between 1930 and 1940. Whereas in 1930 they were six times as large as the research expenditures of the colleges, universities, and research insti- tutes, by 1940 they were nearly ten times as large.
(b) While expenditures for scientific research in the colleges and univer- sities increased by ope-half during this period, those for the endowed research institutes have slowly declined.
// the colleges, universities, and research institutes are to vieet the rapidly increasing demands of industry and Government for new scientific knowledge, their basic research shoidd he strengthened l^y ^^se of fiihlic funds.
Research Within the Government
Although there are some notable exceptions, most research conducted within governmental laboratories is of an applied nature. This has always been true and is likely to remain so. Hence Government, like industry, is dependent upon the colleges, universities, and research institutes to expand the basic scientific frontiers and to furnish trained scientific investigators.
Research within the Government represents an important part of our total research activity and needs to be strengthened and expanded after the war. Such expansion should be directed to fields of inquiry and service which are of public importance and are not adequately carried on by private organi- zations.
The most important single factor in scientific and technical work is the quality of personnel employed. The procedures currently followed within the Government for recruiting, classifying and compensating such personnel place the Government under a severe handicap in competing with industry and the universities for first-class scientific talent. Steps should be taken to reduce that handicap.
In the Government the arrangement whereby the numerous scientific agencies form parts of large departments has both advantages and disadvan- tages. But the present pattern is firmly established and there is much to be said for it. There is, however, a very real need for some measure of coordin- ation of the common scientific activities of these agencies, both as to policies and budgets, and at present no such means exist.
A permanent Science Advisory Board shoidd he created to consult with
20
these scientific bureaus and to advise the executive and legislative branches of Government as to the policies and budgets of Government agencies engaged in scientific research.
This board should be composed of disinterested scientists who have no connection with the affairs of any Government agency.
Industrial Research
The simplest and most effective way in which the Government can strengthen industrial research is to support basic research and to develop scientific talent.
The benefits of basic research do not reach all industries equally or at the same speed. Some small enterprises never receive any of the benefits. It has been suggested that the benefits might be better utilized if "research clinics" for such enterprises were to be established. Businessmen would thus be able to make more use of research than they now do. This proposal is certainly worthy of further study.
One of the most important factors affecting the amount of industrial research is the income-tax law. Government action in respect to this subject will affect the rate of technical progress in industry. Uncertainties as to the attitude of the Bureau of Internal Revenue regarding the deduction of research and development expenses are a deterrent to research expenditure. These uncertainties arise from lack of clarity of the tax law as to the proper treatment of such costs.
The Internal Revenue Code shoidd be amended to remove present uncer- tainties in regard to the deductibility of research and development expendi- tures as current charges against net income.
Research is also affected bv the patent laws. They stimulate new invention and they make it possible for new industries to be built around new devices or new processes. These industries generate new jobs and new products, all of which contribute to the welfare and the strength of the country.
Yet, uncertainties in the operation of the patent laws have impaired the ability of small industries to translate new ideas into processes and products of value to the Nation. These uncertainties are, in part, attributable to the difficulties and expense incident to the operation of the patent svstem as it presently exists. These uncertainties are also attributable to the existence of certain abuses which have appeared in the use of patents. The abuses should be corrected. They have led to extravagantly critical attacks which tend to discredit a basicallv sound svstem.
It is important that the patent svstem continue to serve the countrv in the manner intended by the Gonstitution, for it has been a vital element in the industrial vigor which has distinguished this Nation.
The National Patent Planning Commission has reported on this subject. In addition, a detailed studv, with recommendations concerning the extent to which modifications should be made in our patent laws is currently being made under the leadership of the Secretarv of Commerce. It is recommended, therefore, that specific action with regard to the patent laws be withheld pending the submission of the report devoted exclusively to that subject.
21
International Exchange of Scientific Information
International exchange of scientific information is of growing importance. Increasing specialization of science will make it more important than ever that scientists in this country keep continually abreast of developments abroad. In addition, a flow of scientific information constitutes one facet of general international accord which should be cultivated.
The Government can accomplish significant results in several ways: by aiding in the arrangement of international science congresses, in the official accrediting of American scientists to such gatherings, in the official reception of foreign scientists of standing in this country, in making possible a rapid flow of technical information, including translation service, and possibly in the provision of international fellowships. Private foundations and other groups partially fulfill some of these functions at present, but their scope is incomplete and inadequate.
The Government should take an active role in promoting the international flow of scientific information.
The Special ISeed for Federal Support
We can no longer count on ravaged Europe as a source of fundamental knowledge. In the past we have devoted much of our best eff^orts to the application of such knowledge which has been discovered abroad. In the future we must pay increased attention to discovering this knowledge for ourselves particularly since the scientific applications of the future will be more than ever dependent upon such basic knowledge.
New impetus must be given to research in our country. Such new impetus can come promptly only from the Government. Expenditures for research in the colleges, universities, and research institutes will otherwise not be able to meet the additional demands of increased public need for research.
Further, we cannot expect industry adequately to fill the gap. Industry will fully rise to the challenge of applying new knowledge to new products. The commercial incentive can be relied upon for that. But basic research is essentially noncommercial in nature. It will not receive the attention it requires if left to industry.
For many years the Government has wisely supported research in the agricultural colleges and the benefits have been great. The time has come when such support should be extended to other fields.
In providing Government support, however, we must endeavor to preserve as far as possible the private support of research both in industry and in the colleges, universities, and research institutes. These private sources should continue to carry their share of the financial burden.
The Cost of a Program
It is estimated that an adequate program for Federal support of basic research in the colleges, universities, and research institutes and for financing important applied research in the public interest, will cost about 10 million dollars at the outset and may rise to about 50 million dollars annually when fully underway at the end of perhaps 5 years.
22
Part Four
RENEWAL OF OUR SCIENTIFIC
TALENT
Nature of the Problem
The responsibility for the creation of new scientific knowledge rests on
that small body of men and women who understand the fundamental laws
of nature and are skilled in the techniques of scientific research. While there
will always be the rare individual who will rise to the top without benefit
of formal education and training, he is the exception and even he might
make a more notable contribution if he had the benefit of the best education
we have to offer. I cannot improve on President Conant's statement that:
"* * * in every section of the entire area where the word science may properly be applied, the limiting factor is a human one. We shall have rapid or slow advance in this direction or in that depending on the number of really first-class men Vv'ho are engaged in the work in question. * * * So in the last analysis, the future of science in this country will be determined by our basic educational policy."
A Note of Warning
It would be follv to set up a program under which research in the natural sciences and medicine was expanded at the cost of the social sciences, humanities, and other studies so essential to national well-being. This point has been well stated by the Moe Committee as follows:
"As citizens, as good citizens, we therefore think that we must have in mind while examining the question before us — the discovery and development of scientific talent — the needs of the whole national welfare. We could not suggest to you a program which would syphon into science and technology a disproportionately large share of the Nation's highest abilities, without doing harm to the Nation, nor, indeed, without crippling science. * * * Science cannot live by and unto itself alone."
"The uses to which high ability in youth can be put are various and, to a large extent, are determined by social pressures and rewards. When aided by selective devices for picking out scientifically talented youth, it is clear that large sums of money for scholarships and fellowships and monetary and other rewards in disproportionate amounts might draw into science too large a percentage of the Nation's high ability, with a result highly detrimental to the Nation and to science. Plans for the discovery and development of scientific talent must be related to the other needs of society for high ability * * *. There is never enough ability at high levels to satisfy all the needs of the Nation; we would not seek to draw into science any more of it than science's proportionate share."
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The W artime Deficit
Among the voung men and women qualified to take up scientific work, since 1940 there have been few students o\'er 18, except some in medicine and engineering in Armv and Navy programs and a few 4-F's, who ha\'e followed an integrated scientific course of studies. Neither our allies nor, so far as we know, our enemies have done anything so radical as thus to suspend almost completelv their educational activities in scientific pursuits during the war period.
Two great principles have guided us in this country as we have turned our full efforts to war. First, the sound democratic principle that there should be no favored classes or special pri\'ilege in a time of peril, that all should be readv to sacrifice equallv; second, the tenet that every man should serve in the capacity in which his talents and experience can best be applied for the prosecution of the war effort. In general we have held these principles well in balance.
In my opinion, however, we ha\'e drawn too heavily for nonscientific pur- poses upon the great natural resource which resides in our trained young scientists and engineers. For the general good of the countrv too manv such men have gone into uniform, and their talents have not always been fully utilized. With the exception of those men engaged in war research, all physically fit students at graduate level ha\'e been taken into the armed forces. Those readv for college training in the sciences have not been per- mitted to enter upon that training.
There is thus an accumulating deficit of trained research personnel which will continue for many years. The deficit of science and technology students who, but for the war, would have recei\'ed bachelor's degrees is about 150,000. The deficit of those holding advanced degrees — that is, voung scholars trained to the point where thev are capable of carrving on original work — has been estimated as amounting to about 17,000 bv 1955 in chemistrv, engineering, geologv, mathematics, phvsics, psvchologv, and the biological sciences.
With vioitntir2g demands for scientists both for teaching and for research, we will enter the postwar period with a serious deficit in our trained scientific personnel.
Improve the Quality
Confronted with these deficits, we are compelled to look to the use of our basic human resources and formulate a program which will assure their conservation and effectixe development. The committee advising me on scientific personnel has stated the following principle which should guide our planning:
"If we were all-knowing and all-wise we might, but we think probably not, write you a plan whereby there might be selected for training, which they otherwise would not get, those who, 20 vears hence, would be scientific leaders, and we might not bother about any lesser manifestations of scientific ability. But in the present state of knowledge a plan cannot be made which will select, and assist, only those young men and women who will gi\'e the top future leadership to science. To get top leadership there must be a relatively large base of high ability selected for development and then successive skim- mings of the cream of ability at successive times and at higher levels. No one can select
24
from the bottom those who will be the leaders at the top because unmeasured and unknown factors enter into scientific, or any, leadershij). There are brains and character, strength and health, happiness and spiritual vitality, interest and motivation, and no one knows what else, that must needs enter into this supra-mathematical calculus.
"We think we probablv would not, even if we were all-wise and all-knowing, write you a plan whereby you would be assured of scientific leadership at one stroke. We think as we think because we are not interested in setting up an elect. We think it much the best plan, in this constitutional Republic, that opportunity be held out to all kinds and conditions of men whereby they can better themselves. This is the American way; this is the way the United States has become what it is. We think it very important that circumstances be such that there be no ceilings, other than ability itself, to intel- lectual ambition. We think it very important that everv boy and girl shall know that, if he shows that he has what it takes, the sky is the limit. Even if it be shown subsequently that he has not what it takes to go to the top, he will go farther than he would otherwise go if there had been a ceiling bevond v\'hich he alwavs knew he could not aspire.
"By proceeding from point to point and taking stock on the way, by giving further opportunity to those who show themsekes worthy of further opportunity, by giving the most opportunity to those who show themselves continually developing — this is the way v^'e propose. This is the American way: a man works for what he gets."
Remove the Barriers
Higher education in this country is largely for those who have the means. If those who have the means coincided entirely with those persons who have the talent we should not be squandering a part of our higher education on those undeserving of it, nor neglecting great talent among those who fail to attend college for economic reasons. There are talented individuals in everv segment of the population, but with few exceptions those without the means of buying higher education go without it. Here is a tremendous waste of the greatest resource of a nation — the intelligence of its citizens.
If ability, and not the circumstance of family fortune, is made to determine who shall receive higher education in science, then we shall he assured of constantly improving qjiality at every level of scientific activity.
The Generation in Uniform Must !Sot Be Lost
We have a serious deficit in scientific personnel partly because the men who would have studied science in the colleges and universities have been serving in the Armed Forces. Many had begun their studies before they went to war. Others with capacitv for scientific education went to war after finishing high school. The most immediate prospect of making up some of the deficit in scientific personnel is by salvaging scientific talent from the generation in uniform. For even if we should start now to train the current crop of high school graduates, it would be 1951 before thev would complete graduate studies and be prepared for effective scientific research. This fact underlines the necessity of salvaging potential scientists in uniform.
The Armed Services shoidd comb their records for vien who, prior to or during the war, have given evidence of talent for science, and make prompt arrangements, consistent with current discharge plans, for ordering those who remain in iiniforui as soon as militarily possible to duty at institutions
25
here and overseas where the\ can continue their scientific education. More- over, they should see that those who study overseas have the benefit of the latest scientific developments.
A Program
The countr\' ma\' be proud of the fact that 95 percent of bovs and girls of fifth grade age are enrolled in school, but the drop in enrollment after the fifth grade is less satisfying. For e\'erv 1,000 students in the fifth grade, 600 are lost to education before the end of high school, and all but 72 have ceased formal education before completion of college. While we are con- cerned primarily with methods of selecting and educating high school grad- uates at the college and higher le\'els, we cannot be complacent about the loss of potential talent which is inherent in the present situation.
Students drop out of school, college, and graduate school, or do not get that far, for a variety of reasons: they cannot aflford to go on; schools and colleges prox'iding courses equal to their capacity are not available locally; business and industry recruit many of the most promising before they have finished the training of which they are capable. These reasons apply with particular force to science: the road is long and expensix'C; it extends at least 6 years beyond high school; the percentage of science students who can obtain first-rate training in institutions near home is small.
Improvement in the teaching of science is imperative, for students of latent scientific abilitx' are particularly xulnerable to high school teaching which fails to awaken interest or to provide adequate instruction. To enlarge the group of specially qualified men and women it is necessary to increase the number who go to college. This involves improved high school instruction, provision for helping indi\'idual talented students to finish high school (primarily the responsibility of the local communities), and opportunities for more capable, promising high school students to go to college. Anything short of this means serious waste of higher education and neglect of human resources.
To encoiirage and enable a larger number of young tnen and women of ability to take wp science as a career, and in order gradually to reduce the defcit of trained scientifc personnel, it is recommended that provision be made for a reasonable number of ia) undergraduate scholarships and gradu- ate fellowships and (b) fellowships for advanced training and fundamental research. The details shoidd be worked out with reference to the interests of the several States and of the universities and colleges; and care shotdd be taken not to impair the freedom of the institutions and individuals concerned.
The program proposed by the Moe Committee in Appendix 4 would pro- vide 24,000 undergraduate scholarships and 900 graduate fellowships and would cost about $30,000,000 annually when in full operation. Each year under this program 6,000 undergraduate scholarships would be made avail- able to high school graduates, and 300 graduate fellowships would be offered to college graduates. Approximately the scale of allowances provided for
26
under the educational |)ro!4iain \ov returning veterans has heen used in estimating the cost ot this program.
The plan is, further, that all those who recei\'e such scholarships or fellow- ships in science should be enrolled in a National Science Reserve and be liable to call into the ser\'ice of the Government, in connection with scientific or technical work in time ol war or other national emergency declared by Congress or proclaimed b\ the President. Thus, in addition to the general benefits to the Nation by reason of the addition to its trained ranks of such a corps of scientific workers, there would be a definite benefit to the Nation in ha\ing these scientific workers on call in national emergencies. The Government would be well advised to invest the money involved in this plan e\en if the benefits to the Nation were thought of solely — which they are not — in terms of national preparedness.
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Part Five
A PROBLEM OF SCIENTIFIC RECONVERSION
Effects of Mobilization of Science for War
We have been living on our fat. For more than 5 years many of our scientists have been fighting the w^ar in the laboratories, in the factories and shops, and at the front. We have been directing the energies of our scientists to the development of weapons and materials and methods on a large number of relatively narrow projects initiated and controlled by the Office of Scientific Research and Development and other Government agencies. Like troops, the scientists have been mobilized and thrown into action to serv^e their country in time of emergency. But thev have been diverted to a greater extend than is generally appreciated from the search for answers to the funda- mental problems — from the search on which human welfare and progress depends. This is not a complaint — it is a fact. The mobilization of science behind the lines is aiding the fighting men at the front to win the war and to shorten it; and it has resulted incidentally in the accumulation of a vast amount of experience and knowledge of the application of science to par- ticular problems, much of which can be put to use when the war is over. Fortunately, this country had the scientists — and the time — to make this contribution and thus to advance the date of victory.
Security Restrictions Shotild be Lifted Promptly
Much of the information and experience acquired during the war is confined to the agencies that gathered it. Except to the extent that military security dictates otherwise, such knowledge should be spread upon the record for the benefit of the general public.
Thanks to the wise provision of the Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy, most of the results of wartime medical research have been published. Sc\'eral hundred articles have appeared in the professional jour- nals; many are in process of publication. The material still subject to security classification should be released as soon as possible.
It is my view that most of the remainder of the classified scientific material should be released as soon as there is ground for belief that the enemy will not be able to turn it against us in this war. Most of the information needed by industry and in education can be released without disclosing its embodi-
28
ments in actual militarv material and devices. Basically there is no reason to believe that scientists of other countries will not in time rediscover every- thing we now know which is held in secrecy. A broad dissemination of scientific information upon which further advances can readily be made furnishes a sounder foundation lor our national security than a policy of restriction which would impede our own progress although imposed in the hope that possible enemies would not catch up with us.
During the war it has been necessary for selected groups of scientists to work on specialized problems, with relatively little information as to what other groups were doing and had done. Working against time, the Office of Scientific Research and Development has been obliged to enforce this practice during the war, although it was realized by all concerned that it was an emergency measure which prevented the continuous cross-fertilization so essential to fruitful scientific effort.
Our ability to overcovie jwssihle future enemies defends upon scientific advances which will proceed more rapidly with diffusion of knowledge than under a policy of continued restriction of knowledge now in our possession.
Need for Coordination
In planning the release of scientific data and experience collected in connection with the war, we must not overlook the fact that research has gone forward under many auspices — the Army, the Navy, the Office of Scientific Research and Development, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, other departments and agencies of the Government, educational institutions, and many industrial organizations. There ha\'e been numerous cases of independent discovery of the same truth in different places. To permit the release of information by one agency and to continue to restrict it elsewhere would be unfair in its effect and would tend to impair the morale and efficiency of scientists who have submerged individual interests in the controls and restrictions of war.
A part of the information now classified which should be released is possessed jointly by our allies and ourselves. Plans for release of such information should be coordinated with our allies to minimize danger of international friction which would result from sporadic uncontrolled release.
A Board to Control Release
The agency responsible for recommending the release of information from military classification should be an Army, Navy, civilian body, well grounded in science and technology. It should be competent to advise the Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy. It should, moreover, have sufficient recognition to secure prompt and practical decisions.
To satisfy these considerations I recommend the estahlishmcnt of a Board, made up equally of scientists and military men, whose function would he to pass upon the declassification and to control the release for puhlication of scientific inforviation which is now classified.
29
Publication Should Be Encouraged
The release of information from security regulations is but one phase of the problem. The other is to provide for preparation of the material and its publication in a form and at a price which will facilitate dissemination and use. In the case of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, arrangements have been made for the preparation of manuscripts, while the staffs under our control are still assembled and in possession of the records, as soon as the pressure for production of results for this war has begun to relax.
We should get this scientific material to scientists everywhere with great promptness, and at as low a price as is consistent with suitable format. We should also get it to the men studving overseas so that they will know what has happened in their absence.
It is recommended that measures which will encourage and facilitate the ■preparation and fmhlication of reports he adopted forthwith hy all agencies, governmental and private, possessing scientific information released from security control.
30
Part Six
THE MEANS TO THE END
New Responsibilities for Government
One lesson is clear from the reports of the several committees attached as appendices. The Federal Go\'ernment should accept new responsibilities for promoting the creation of new scientific knowledge and the development of scientific talent in our vouth.
The extent and nature of these new responsibilities are set forth in detail in the reports of the committees whose recommendations in this regard are fullv endorsed.
In discharging these responsibilities Federal funds should be made avail- able. We ha\'e given much thought to the question of how plans for the use of Federal funds mav be arranged so that such funds will not drive out of the picture funds from local governments, foundations, and private donors. We believe that our proposals will minimize that effect, but we do not think that it can be completely avoided. We submit, however, that the Nation's need for more and better scientific research is such that the risk must be accepted.
It is also clear that the effective discharge of these responsibilities will require the full attention of some over-all agency devoted to that purpose. There should be a focal point within the Government for a concerted pro- gram of assisting scientific research conducted outside of Government. Such an agencv should furnish the funds needed to support basic research in the colleges and universities, should coordinate where possible research programs on matters of utmost importance to the national welfare, should formulate a national policv for the Government toward science, should sponsor the inter- change of scientific information among scientists and laboratories both in this country and abroad, and should ensure that the incentives to research in industry and the universities are maintained. All of the committees advising on these matters agree on the necessitv for such an agency.
The Mechanism
There are within Government departments many groups whose interests are primarilv those of scientific research. Notable examples are found within the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Interior, and the Federal Secu- ritv Agencv. These groups are concerned with science as collateral and
31
peripheral to the major problems of those Departments. These groups should remain where they are, and continue to perform their present functions, including the support of agricultural research by grants to the land grant colleges and experimental stations, since then- largest contribution lies in apph'ing fundamental knowledge to the special problems of the Departments within which thc\ are established.
By the same token these groups cannot be made the repository of the new and large responsibilities in science which belong to the Government and which the Government should accept. The recommendations in this report which relate to research within the Go\'ernment, to the release of scientific information, to clarification of the tax laws, and to the recovery and develop- ment of our scientific talent now in uniform can be implemented by action within the existing structure of the Government. But nowhere in the gov- ernmental structure recei\'ing its funds from Congress is there an agency adapted to supplementing the support of basic research in the universities, both in medicine and the natural sciences; adapted to supporting research on new weapons for both Services; or adapted to administering a program of science scholarships and fellowships.
A new agenc\' should be established, therefore, bv the Congress for the purpose. Such an agencv, moreover, should be an independent agency dex'oted to the support of scientific research and advanced scientific education alone. Industr\' learned manv vears ago that basic research cannot often be fruitfulK' conducted as an adjunct to or a subdixision of an operating agency or department. Operating agencies ha\e immediate operating goals and are under constant pressure to produce in a tangible wav, for that is the test of their value. None of these conditions is favorable to basic research. Research is the exploration of the unknown and is necessarily speculati\e. It is in- hibited bv con\'entional approaches, traditions, and standards. It cannot be satisfactorily conducted in an atmosphere where it is gauged and tested by operating or production standards. Basic scientific research should not, therefore, be placed under an operating agency whose paramount concern is anything other than research. Research will always suffer when put in competition with operations. The decision that there should be a new and independent agencx' was reached bv each of the committees advising in these matters.
I am con\ inced that these new functions should be centered in one agency. Science is fundamcntalK a unitary thing. The number of independent agencies should be kept to a minimum. Much medical progress, for example, will come from fundamental ad\'ances in chemistrw Separation of the sci- ences in tight comjiartments, as would occur if more than one agency were involved, would retard and not ad\'ance scientific knowledge as a whole.
Five Fiindanieiilnls
There are certain basic principles which must underlie the program of Government supjiort for scientific research and education if such support is to be effecti\c and if it is to a\()id impairing the \'erv things we seek to foster. These principles are as follows:
32
(1) Whatever the extent of support may be, there must be stability of funds over a period of years so that long-range programs may be undertaken.
(2) The agencv to administer such funds should be composed of citizens selected only on the basis of their interest in and capacity to promote the work of the agency. They should be persons of broad interest in and under- standing of the peculiarities of scientific research and education.
(3) The agency should promote research through contracts or grants to organizations outside the Federal Government. It should not operate any laboratories of its own.
(4) Support of basic research in the public and private colleges, uni- versities, and research institutes must leave the internal control of policy, personnel, and the method and scope of the research to the institutions themselves. This is of the utmost importance.
(5) While assuring complete independence and freedom for the nature, scope, and methodology of research carried on in the institutions receiving public funds, and while retaining discretion in the allocation of funds among such institutions, the Foundation proposed herein must be responsible to the President and the Congress. Only through such responsibility can we main- tain the proper relationship between science and other aspects of a democratic system. The usual controls of audits, reports, budgeting, and the like, should, of course, apply to the administrative and fiscal operations of the Foundation, subject, however, to such adjustments in procedure as are necessary to meet the special requirements of research.
Basic research is a long-term process — it ceases to be basic if immediate results are expected on short-term support. Methods should therefore be found which will permit the agency to make commitments of funds from current appropriations for programs of five years duration or longer. Conti- nuity and stability of the program and its support may be expected (a) from the growing realization by the Congress of the benefits to the public from scientific research, and (1?) from the conviction which will grow among those who conduct research under the auspices of the agency that good quality work will be followed by continuing support.
Military Research
As stated earlier in this report, military preparedness requires a permanent, independent, civilian-controlled organization, having close Haison with the Army and Navy, but with funds direct from Congress and the clear power to initiate military research which will supplement and strengthen that carried on directly under the control of the Army and Navy. As a temporary measure the National Academy of Sciences has established the Research Board for National Security at the request of the Secretary of War and the Secretarv of the Navy. This is highly desirable in order that there may be no interruption in the relations between scientists and military men after the emergencv wartime Office of Scientific Research and Development goes out of existence. The C'ongress is now considering legislation to provide funds for this Board by direct appropriation.
33
I belie^•e that, as a permanent measure, it would be appropriate to add to the agenc\- needed to perform the other functions recommended in this report the responsibihties for civihan-initiated and civihan-controllcd mihtary research. The function of such a ci\iHan group would be primarily to con- duct long-range scientific research on military problems — leaving to the Services research on the improvement of existing weapons.
Some research on military problems should be conducted, in time of peace as well as in war, b\ ci\ilians independently of the military establishment. It is the primary responsibility of the /\rm\- and Na\'y to train the men, make available the weapons, and employ the strategy that will bring victor)^ in combat. The Armed Ser\'ices cannot be expected to be experts in all of the complicated fields which make it possible for a great nation to fight success- fully in total war. There are certain kinds of research — such as research on the improvement of existing weapons — which can best be done within the military establishment. Howexer, the job of long-range research involving application of the newest scientific disco\'eries to military needs should be the responsibilitx' of those cix'ilian scientists in the universities and in indus- try who are best trained to discharge it thoroughly and successfully. It is essential that both kinds of research go forward and that there be the closest liaison between the two groups.
Placing the civilian military research function in the proposed agency would bring it into close relationship with a broad program of basic research in both the natural sciences and medicine. A balance between military' and other research could thus readily be maintained.
The establishment of the new agency, including a civilian military re- search group, should not be delayed by the existence of the Research Board for National Security, which is a temporary measure. Nor should the creation of the new agency be delayed by uncertainties in regard to the postwar organization of our militar\' departments themselves. Clearly, the new agency, includinp a civilian military research group within it, can remain sufficiently flexible to adapt its operations to whatever may be the hnal organization of the military departments.
National Research Foundation
It is m\' judgment that the national interest in scientific research and scientific education can best be promoted by the creation of a National Research Foundation.
I. Purposes
The National Research Foundation should develop and promote a national policy for scientific research and scientific education, should support basic research in nonprofit organizations, should develop scientific talent in Amer- ican youth by means of scholarships and fellowships, and should by contract and otherwise support long-range research on military matters.
II. Members
1. Responsibility to the people, through the President and Congress, should be placed in the hands of, say nine Members, who should be persons not
34
otherwise eonneeted with the Government and not representative of any special interest, who shoidd be known as National Research Foundation Members, selected b\ the President on the basis of their interest in and capacitv to promote the purposes of the Foundation.
2. The terms of the Members should be, say, 4 vears, and no Member should be eligible for immediate reappointment prox'ided he has served a full 4-vear term. It should be arranged that the Members first appointed ser\'e terms of such length that at least two Members are appointed each succeeding year.
3. The Members should serve without compensation but should be en- titled to their expenses incurred in the performance of their duties.
4. The Members should elect their own chairman annually.
5. The chief executive oflicer of the Foundation should be a director appointed by the Members. Subject to the direction and supervision of the Foundation Members (acting as a board), the director should discharge all the fiscal, legal, and administrative functions of the Foundation. The direc- tor should receive a salary that is fully adequate to attract an outstanding man to the post.
6. There should be an administrative office responsible to the director to handle in one place the fiscal, legal, personnel, and other similar admin- istrative functions necessary to the accomplishment of the purposes of the Foundation.
7. With the exception of the director, the division members, and one executive ofiicer appointed by the director to administer the affairs of each division, all employees of the Foundation should be appointed under Civil Service rcpulations.
"is"
III. Ormnization
1. In order to accomplish the purposes of the Foundation, the Members should establish several professional Divisions to be responsible to the Mem- bers. At the outset these Divisions should be:
a. Division of Medical Research. — The function of this Division should
be to support medical research. h. Division of Natural Sciences. — The function of this Division should
be to support research in the physical and natural sciences.
c. Division of National Defense. — It should be the function of this Divi- sion to support long-range scientific research on military matters.
d. Division of Scientific Personnel and Education. — It should be the func- tion of this Division to support and to supervise the grant of scholar- ships and fellowships in science.
e. Division of Pid?lications and Scientific Collaboration. — This Division should be charged with encouraging the publication of scientific knowl- edge and promoting international exchange of scientific information.
2. Each Division of the Foundation should be made up of at least five members, appointed by the Members of the Foundation. In making such appointments the Members should request and consider recommendations from the National Academy of Sciences which should be asked to establish a new National Research Foundation nominating committee in order to
35
bring together the recommendations of scientists in all organizations. The chairman of each Division should be appointed by the Members of the Foundation.
3. The Division Members should be appointed for such terms as the Members of the Foundation may determine, and may be reappointed at the discretion of the Members. They should receive their expenses and com- pensation for their services at a per diem rate of, say, $50 while engaged on business of the Foundation, but no Division Member should receive more than, say, $10,000 compensation per year.
4. Membership of the Division of National Defense should include, in addition to, say, five civilian members, one representative designated by the Secretary of War, and one representative of the Secretary of the Navy, who should serve without additional compensation for this duty.
Proposed Organization of National Research Foundation
NATIONAL RESEARCH FOUNDATION
MEMBERS
DIRECTOR
DIVISION OF MEDICAL RESEARCH
MEMBERS
EXECUTIVE OFFICER
STAFF OFFICES
GENERAL COUNSEL FINANCE OFFICER ADMINISTRATIVE PLANNING PERSONNEL
DIVISION OF NATURAL SCIENCES
MEMBERS
EXECUTIVE OFFICER
DIVISION OF SCIENTIFIC PERSONNEL & EDUCATION
MEMBERS
DIVISION OF NATIONAL DEFENSE
MEMBERS
EXECUTIVE OFFICER
DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS & SCIENTIFIC COLLABORATION
MEMBERS
EXECUTIVE OFFICER
EXECUTIVE OFFICER
36
IV. Functions
1. The Mevihers of the Foundation should have the following functions, powers, and duties:
a. To formulate over-all policies of the Foundation.
h. To establish and maintain such offices within the United States, its territories and possessions, as they may deem necessary.
c. To meet and function at any place within the United States, its terri- tories and possessions.
d. To obtain and utilize the services of other Government agencies to the extent that such agencies are prepared to render such services.
e. To adopt, promulgate, amend, and rescind rules and regulations to carrv out the provisions of the legislation and the policies and practices of the Foundation.
f. To review and balance the financial requirements of the several Divi- sions and to propose to the President the annual estimate for the funds required by each Division. Appropriations should be earmarked for the purposes of specific Divisions, but the Foundation should be left discretion with respect to the expenditure of each Division's funds.
g. To make contracts or grants for the conduct of research by negotiation without advertising for bids.
And with the advice of the National Research Foundation Divisions concerned —
h. To create such advisory and cooperating agencies and councils, State, regional, or national, as in their judgment will aid in effectuating the purposes of the legislation, and to pay the expenses thereof.
i. To enter into contracts with or make grants to educational and non- profit research institutions for support of scientific research.
j. To initiate and finance in appropriate agencies, institutions, or organi- zations, research on problems related to the national defense.
k. To initiate and finance in appropriate organizations research projects for which existing facilities are unavailable or inadequate.
/. To establish scholarships and fellowships in the natural sciences includ- ing biology and medicine.
m. To promote the dissemination of scientific and technical information and to further its international exchange.
n. To support international cooperation in science by providing financial aid for international meetings, associations of scientific societies, and scientific research programs organized on an international basis.
o. To devise and promote the use of methods of improving the transition between research and its practical application in industi'y.
2. The Divisions should he responsible to the Members of the Founda- tion for —
a. Formulation of programs and policy within the scope of the particular
Divisions. h. Recommendation regarding the allocation of research programs among
research organizations.
37
c. Recommendation of appropriate arrangements between the Foundation and the organizations selected to carry on the program.
d. Recommendation of arrangements with State and local authorities in regard to cooperation in a program of science scholarships and fellow- ships.
e. Periodic review of the quality of research being conducted under the auspices of the particular Division and revision of the program of sup- port of research.
/. Presentatidn of budgets of financial needs for the work of the Division. g. Maintaining liaison with other scientific research agencies, both gov- ernmental and private, concerned with the work of the Division.
V. Patent Policy
The success of the National Research Foundation in promoting scientific research in this country will depend to a very large degree upon the coop- eration of organizations outside the Government. In making contracts with or grants to such organizations the Foundation should protect the public interest adequately and at the same time leave the cooperating organizations with adequate freedom and incentive to conduct scientific research. The public interest will normally be adequately protected if the Government receives a royaltv-free license for governmental purposes under any patents resulting from work financed by the Foundation. There should be no obli- gation on the research institution to patent discoveries made as a result of support from the Foundation. There should certainly not be anv absolute requirement that all rights in such discoveries be assigned to the Government, but it should be left to the discretion of the Director and the interested Divi- sion whether in special cases the public interest requires such an assignment. Legislation on this point should leave to the Members of the Foundation discretion as to its patent policv in order that patent arrangements mav be adjusted as circumstances and the public interest require.
VI. Special Authority
In order to insure that men of great competence and experience may be designated as Members of the Foundation and as Members of the several professional Divisions, the legislation creating the Foundation should contain specific authorization so that the Members of the Foundation and the Mem- bers of the Divisions may also engage in private and gainful employment, notwithstanding the provisions of anv other laws: provided, however, that no compensation for such employment is received in any form from any profit-making institution which receives funds under contract, or otherwise, from the Division or Divisions of the Foundation with which the individual is concerned. In normal times, in view of the restrictive statutory prohibi- tions against dual interests on the part of Government officials, it would be virtually impossible to persuade persons having private employment of any kind to serve the Government in an official capacity. In order, however, to secure the part-time services of the most competent men as Members of the Foundation and the Divisions, these stringent prohibitions should be relaxed to the extent indicated.
Since research is unlike the procurement of standardized items, which are
38
susceptible to competitive bidding on fixed specifications, the legislation creating the National Research Foundation should free the Foundation from the obligation to place its contracts for research through advertising for bids. This is particularK' so since the measure of a successful research contract lies not in the dollar cost but in the qualitative and quantitative contribution which is made to our knowledge. The extent of this contribution in turn depends on the creative spirit and talent which can be brought to bear within a research laboratory. The National Research Foundation must, therefore, be free to place its research contracts or grants not only with those institu- tions which have a demonstrated research capacity but also with other insti- tutions whose latent talent or creative atmosphere affords promise of research success.
As in the case of the research sponsored during the war by the Ofhce of Scientific Research and Development, the research sponsored by the National Research Foundation should be conducted, in general, on an actual cost basis without profit to the institution receiving the research contract or grant.
There is one other matter which requires special mention. Since research does not fall within the category of normal commercial or procurement operations which are easily covered by the usual contractual relations, it is essential that certain statutory and regulatory fiscal requirements be waived in the case of research contractors. For example, the National Research Foundation should be authorized by legislation to make, modify, or amend contracts of all kinds with or without legal consideration, and without per- formance bonds. Similarlv, advance payments should be allowed in the discretion of the Director of the Foundation when required. Finally, the normal vouchering requirements of the General Accounting Office with respect to detailed itemization or substantiation of vouchers submitted under cost contracts should be relaxed for research contractors. Adherence to the usual procedures in the case of research contracts will impair the efficiency of research operations and will needlesslv increase the cost of the work to the Government. Without the broad authority along these lines which was contained in the First War Powers Act and its implementing Executive Orders, together with the special relaxation of vouchering requirements granted by the General Accounting Office, the Office of Scientific Research and Development would have been gravely handicapped in carr)nng on research on military matters during this war. Colleges and universities in which research will be conducted principally under contract with the Foundation are, unlike commercial institutions, not equipped to handle the detailed vouchering procedures and auditing technicalities which are re- quired of the usual Government contractors.
VIL Budget
Studies by the several committees provide a partial basis for making an estimate of the order of magnitude of the funds required to implement the proposed program. Clearly the program should grow in a healthy manner from modest beginnings. The following very rough estimates are given for the first year of operation after the Foundation is organized and operating, and for the fifth year of operation when it is expected that the operations would have reached a fairlv stable level:
39
|
Activity |
Millions of dollars |
|
|
First year |
Fifth year |
|
|
Division of Medical Research ._ _ _ |
$5.0 10.0 10.0 7.0 .5 1.0 |
$20.0 |
|
Division of Natural Sciences Division of National Defense |
50.0 20.0 |
|
|
Division of Scientific Personnel and Education |
29.0 |
|
|
Division of Publications and Scientific Collaboration Administration . . . _ _ _ . |
1.0 2.5 |
|
|
33.5 |
122.5 |
Action by Congress
The National Research Foundation herein proposed meets the urgent need of the davs ahead. The form of the organization suggested is the result of considerable deliberation. The form is important. The very successful pattern of organization of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, which has promoted basic research on problems of flight during the past thirty years, has been carefully considered in proposing the method of appointment of iMembers of the Foundation and in defining their respon- sibilities. Moreover, whate\'er program is established it is vitally important that it satisf\' the Fi\'e Fundamentals.
The Foundation here proposed has been described only in outline. The excellent reports of the committees which studied these matters are attached as appendices. They will be of aid in furnishing detailed suggestions.
Legislation is necessar\-. It should be drafted with great care. Early action is imperative, hovyever, if this Nation is to meet the challenge of science and fully utilize the potentialities of science. On the wisdom with which we bring science to bear against the problems of the coming years depends in large measure our future as a Nation.
40
APPENDICES
41
IN MEMORIAM
The following members of the advisory committees have died since the publication of Science, the Endless Frontier in 1945: Isaiah Bowman Walter C. Coffey Karl T. Compton r. e. doherty Clarence A. Dykstra Farnham p. Griffiths W. S. Hunter W. Rupert Maclaurin Charles E. MacQuigg Cleveland Norcross J. Hugh ODonnell W. W. Palmer J. T. Tate Kenneth B. Turner
42
Appendix 1
Committees Consulted
Question
"With particular reference to the war of science against disease, what can be done now to organize a program for continuing in the future the work which has been done in medicine and related sciences?"
Committee
Dr. W. W. Palmer, chairman; Bard professor of medicine, Columbia Uni- versity; director of medical service of Presb\'terian Hospital, New York City.'
Dr. Homer VV. Smith, secretary; director, physiology laboratory, School of Medicine, New York University.
Dr. Kenneth B. Turner, assistant secretary; assistant professor of medicine, Columbia University.
Dr. VV. B. Castle, professor of medicine, Harvard Unixersitv; associate di- rector, Thorndike Memorial Laboratory, Boston City Hospital.
Dr. Edward A. Doisy, director, department of physiology and biochemistry, St. Louis Llniversity School of Medicine (recipient of Nobel Award).
Dr. Ernest Goodpasture, professor of pathology. School of Medicine, Van- derbilt Unix'ersitv.
Dr. Alton Ochsner, professor of surgery and head of the department of surgery at Tulane LIni\'ersity School of Medicine.
Dr. Linus Pauling, head of the division of chemistry and chemical engineer- ing and director of the chemical laboratories at the California Institute of Technology.
Dr. James |. Waring, professor of medicine, Llniversity of Colorado School of Medicine.
43
Question
"What can the Government do now and in the future to aid research activities bv pubhc and private organizations? The proper roles of public and of pri\ate research, and their interrelation, should be carefully considered. '
Committee
Dr. Isaiah Bowman, chairman; president of Johns Hopkins University.
Dr. J. T. Tate, vice chairman; research professor of physics, University of Minnesota.
Dr. W. Rupert Maclaurin, secretarv; professor of economics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Dr. 01i\er E. Bucklev, president of the Bell Telephone Laboratories.
Dr. Weaker C. Coffev, president of the Uni\ersitv of Minnesota.
Mr. Oscar S. Cox, deputy administrator of the Foreign Economic Admin- istration.
Col. Bradlev Dewev, president of Dewey & Almv Chemical Co.
Dr. Clarence A. Dvkstra, prox'ost of the Uni\'ersitv of California at Los Angeles.
Dr. C. P. Haskins, director of Haskins Laboratories.
Dr. Edwin H. Land, president and director of research, Polaroid Corpora- tion.
Dr. Charles E. MacOuigg, dean of the College of Engineering, Ohio State Uni\'ersitv.
Dr. Harold G. Moulton, president of the Brookings Institution.
Re\'. ]. Hugh O'Donnell, president of the LIni\ersit\' of Notre Dame.
Dr. I. I. Rabi, professor of phvsics, Columbia Uni\'ersit^' (recipient of Nobel Award).
Dr. Warren Wea\'er, director for natural sciences. Rockefeller Foundation.
Dr. Robert E. Wilson, chairman of the board, Standard Oil Co. of Indiana.
Dr. William E. \\^-ather, director, LI. S. Geological Survev.
Question
"Can an effective program be proposed for discovering and developing scientific talent in American vouth so that the continuing future of scien- tific research in this country mav be assured on a le\'el comparable to what has been done during the war? '
Committee
Dr. Henr\' Allen Moe, chairman; secretar\'-general of the John Simon Gug- genheim Memorial Foundation.
Mr. Lawrence K. Frank, secretary.
Mr. Henrv Chauncev, assistant secretarv.
Dr. Henr\' A. Barton, director of the American Institute of Phvsics.
Dr. C. Lalor Burdick, special assistant to the president, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.
Co]itinHL>d, next pngf
44
Dr. J. B. Conant, president of Harvard University; chairman of the National
Defense Research Committee. Dr. Watson Davis, editor and director of Science Service. Dr. R. E. Dohertv, president of the Carnegie Institute of Technology. Dr. Paul E. Elicker, executive secretary, National Association of Secondary
School Principals. Mr. Farnham P. Griffiths, lawyer, San Francisco. Dr. W. S. Hunter, professor of psychology at Brown University. Dr. T. R. McConnell, dean of the College of Science, Literature, and Arts
at the Universitv of Minnesota. Mr. Walter S. Rogers, director of the Institute of Current World Affairs. Dr. Harlow Shapley, director of the Harvard College Observatory. Dr. Hugh S. Taylor, dean of the Graduate School, Princeton University. Dr. E. B. Wilson, professor of vital statistics. Harvard Universitv School of
Public Health.
Question
"What can be done, consistent with military security, and with the prior approval of the military authorities, to make known to the world as soon as possible the contributions which have been made during our war eflfort to scientific knowledge"?"
Committee
Dr. lr\'in Stewart, chairman; executive secretary of the Office of Scientific Research and Development; director of the Committee on Scientific Aids to Learning of the National Research Council.
Mr. Cleveland Norcross, secretary; executive assistant to the executive sec- retary of the Office of Scientific Research and Development.
Dr. 1. P. Baxter III, president of Williams College; historian of the Office of Scientific Research and Development.
Dr. Karl T. Compton, president of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology; chairman of the Research Board for National Security; member of the National Defense Research Committee.
Dr. 1. B. Conant, president of Harvard University; chairman of the National Defense Research Committee.
Dr. A. N. Richards, vice president of the University of Pennsylvania in charge of Medical Affairs; chairman of the Committee on Medical Re- search of the Office of Scientific Research and Development.
Dr. M. A. Tuve, director, applied physics laboratory, Johns Hopkins Uni- versitv; staff member of the department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Mr. Carroll L. Wilson, executive assistant to the Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development.
45
Appendix 2
Report of tlie Medical Advisory Coramlttee
Table of Contents
Page
Letter of transmittal 47
Members of the Committee — 48
Summary 49
Recommendations 51
Part I. Considerations on which the recommendations of the Committee are
based 52
1. The record of medicine in World War II 52
2. The Committee on Medical Research of the Office of Scientific Research
and Development 53
3. Effect of war on medical research 54
4. The need for continued medical research 54
5. Importance of fundamental research to the progress of medicine 55
6. The place of medical schools and universities in medical research 56
7. Medical research under State sponsorship in Great Britain 56
8. The need for Federal aid to medical research 57
9. How financial aid should be supplied 58
10. Estimated cost of program 60
11. The need for an independent agency 60
12. Compensation 61
13. Patent rights 61
Part II. Fundamental principles governing the use of Federal funds for medical
research 62
Part III. Recorrunendations outlining the establishment of a "National Founda- tion for Medical Research" as an independent Federal agency 64
1. Composition of the Foundation 64
Board of trustees 64
Technical board 65
Office of the executive secretary 66
2. Functions of the Foundation 66
Financial aid 67
a. General research funds 67
b. Fellowships 67
c. Grants-in-aid 68
Coordination and initiation of research 68
3. Reports 68
4. Authority to modify procedure -— 69
46
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
Dr. Vannevar Bush, Director,
Office of Scientific Research and Developinent,
1530 P Street NW., Washington 25, D. C.
My Dear Dr. Bush:
It is my privilege to submit herewith the report of the Medical Advisory Committee appointed by you in January of this year to answer the second question in President Roosevelt's letter of November 17, 1944, which was worded :
With particular reference to the war of science against disease, what can be done now to organize a program for continuing in the future the work which has been done in medicine and related sciences? The fact that the annual deaths in this country from one or two diseases alone are far in excess of the total number of lives lost by us in battle during this war should make us conscious of the duty we owe future generations.
In preparing this report, the Committee has consulted some 350 repre- sentatives from 73 of the 77 medical schools of the United States, from the Services, from various research institutions, from the pharmaceutical indus- trv, and from philanthropic foundations; it has conferred in joint meeting with the Committee on Medical Research; and it has received written com- ment and advice from many leaders in medicine and allied sciences through- out the country.
The report, which is preceded by a summarv, is in three parts: (1) Con- siderations on which the recommendations of the Committee are based, (2) fundamental principles governing the use of Federal funds for medical re- search, (3) recommendations outlining the establishment of a National Foundation for Medical Research as an independent Federal agency.
The Committee recognizes a great and urgent need for the expansion and renovation of medical school laboratories. However, our study has taken no account of this requirement, pertinent as it is to medical research, since a building program was considered outside the scope of our assignment.
This report has the unanimous approval of mv Committee and I submit it with the conviction that it has, almost without exception, the endorsement of the manv individuals to whom the Committee is so deeplv indebted for freely gi\'en and \aluable ad\ice.
Respectfully vours,
Walter W. Palmer, Chairman,
Medical Advisory Committee.
April 25, 1945.
47
MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE
Dr. Walter W. Palmer, chairman, Bard professor of medicine, Columbia University; director of medical service of the Presbyterian Hospital, New York City.
Dr. Homer W. Smith, secretary, director, physiology laboratory. School of Medicine, New York University.
Dr. Kenneth B. Turner, assistant secretary, assistant professor of medicine, Columbia University.
Dr. William B. Castle, professor of medicine. Harvard University; associate director, Thorndike Memorial Laboratory, Boston City Hospital.
Dr. Edward A. Doisy, director, department of physiology and biochemistry, St. Louis University School of Medicine (recipient of Nobel Award).
Dr. Ernest Goodpasture, professor of pathology. School of Medicine, Van- derbilt University.
Dr. Alton Ochsner, professor of surgery and head of the department of surgery, Tulane University School of Medicine.
Dr. Linus Pauling, head of the division of chemistry and chemical engineer- ing, director of the chemical laboratories at the California Institute of Technology.
Dr. James J. Waring, professor of medicine, Uni\'ersity of Colorado School of Medicine.
48
SUMMARY
Impressed by the contributions medicine has made in the present world struggle, President Roosevelt asked what could be done by the Government in the future to aid "the war of science against disease."
Recognition of the brilliant record of medicine in World War II has brought comfort to thousands of families with members in the armed forces. Compared to World War I the death rate for all diseases in the Army, includ- ing overseas forces, has fallen from 14.1 to 0.6 per 1,000 strength. Penicillin and the sulfonamides, the insecticide DDT, better vaccines, and improved hygienic measures have all but conquered yellow fever, dysentery, typhus, tetanus, pneumonia, meningitis. Malaria has been controlled. Disability from venereal disease has been radically reduced by new methods of treat- ment. Dramatic progress in surgery has been aided by the increased avail- ability of blood and plasma for transfusions.
Much of the credit for these advances is properly assignable to the Com- mittee on Medical Research of the Office of Scientific Research and Devel- opment. In 3 years this organization has developed penicillin and DDT; supported blood fractionation studies resulting in serum albumin as a blood substitute and immune globulin as a new countermeasure against infections; and standardized the effective treatment of malaria with atabrine now used by the armed forces. Up to July 1944, this program had cost $15,000,000, a modest outlay for the saving in suffering and lives.
These dramatic advances in medicine during the war have been the result of developmental rather than fundamental research, and have come through the application, to problems of wartime importance, of a large backlog of scientific data accumulated through careful research in the years prior to the war.
In the meantime, sorely needed additions to- basic knowledge have been prevented. The war has forced us to set aside fundamental research to a large extent. Our capacity to carry out research in the future has been impaired bv the curtailment of medical education, the absorption of physi- cians into the armed forces, the prohibition against training draft-eligible men in the basic medical sciences, and the diversion into developmental problems of those scientists who were able to remain in their laboratories.
The universities are the chief contributors to pure science, for research thrives best in an atmosphere of academic freedom. It is to the universities
49
that we must turn to train more men for research and to provide the infor- mation that will enable us to solve the problems of cancer, degenerative disease and the ageing process, neuropsychiatric disorders, peptic ulcer, asthma, and e\'en the common cold.
Universitv funds that can be used for medical research are decreasing as research costs rise. Income from endowment is steadily shrinking, while endowment itself is no longer being increased bv large new gifts. Medical schools must continue to meet relativelv fixed expenses of teaching and overhead from smaller budgets, with the result that less money is left for research.
Medical research will continue in the future, regardless of any adverse circumstances. The Go\'ernment, however, has an opportunity to play an important role in supplementing the depleted research budgets of medical schools. Federal aid will increase the volume of medical research; it will strengthen the promise of important discoverv and speed its fulfillment; it will encourage and develop the financiallv weaker schools now at a serious disad\'antage; and it will enable the United States to maintain its position of world leadership in medical research in competition with the nations of Europe where State funds have long been available for scientific research. When a government wiselv invests the people's monev in medical research, the people receive huge dividends in the form of better health and longer lives.
If Federal funds are to be used to aid medical research, they should be provided in three forms:
1. Funds should be made available as unrestricted grants, with no portion earmarked for a specific purpose, to supplv technical help and materials; to enable a limited number of voung people to obtain research experience during their regular course in medicine; to build up research in institutions where, for financial reasons, it is not now well-developed; and to cover a multitude oF research requirements within each institution. The admin- istration of these funds should be decentralized to the fullest possible extent, allowing full plav to the wisdom and experience of medical school faculties and administrators. If a central agency were to attempt to underwrite a program of this sort item by item, the costs of administration would be pro- hibitive, and the organization would be too rigid and ponderous to meet the numerous, diverse, and sometimes rapidly varying needs of the institutions.
2. Funds should be made available to support fellowships in order that young people with aptitude for research mav be selected, trained, and given an opportunity to carry on research.
3. Funds should be made available to support special projects of consid- erable magnitude and importance bv grants-in-aid.
The Federal agency should receive its funds by such means as to permit it to fa\'or long term grants, up to 10 years.
Federal aid should be initiated modestly. Funds exceeding the capacity of the Nation's research institutions to utilize them effectively would do harm bv encouraging mediocre work and by driving away unix'crsitv and foundation support. The responsible agency must remain free from political influence and resistant to special pressures. Its policies must be determined
50
by scientists who bring sympathetic understanding to the problems of research. The agency must have the necessary flexibility to modify its procedures in the light of experience.
From available information it is estimated that approximately 5 to 7 million dollars annually could be used effectively in the immediate postwar period. As the research program develops a larger sum may be required.
Recommendations
The Committee recommends that Government aid be provided for medi- cal research through the creation of an independent Federal agency to be called the National Foundation for Medical Research. The Foundation would consist of a board of trustees, a technical board, and the necessary administrative organization.
The board of trustees would consist of five eminent scientists appointed by the President with the approval of the Senate for terms of 5 years, and in such a way initially as to secure rotation by the retirement of one member each year. The trustees would serve on a part-time basis, be paid for their work, and be appointed without regard to civil-service laws. Meetings of the trustees would be held monthly with one meeting annually in each of six geographical regions. The trustees would determine the policies of the Foundation and act on all requests for funds.
The technical board would consist of 12 scientists, representing special fields of medical science, appointed by the trustees for terms of 3 years, and in such a way initially as to secure rotation by the retirement of 4 members each year. Technical board members would serve on a part-time basis, be paid for their work, and be appointed without regard to the civil-service laws. Members of the technical board would have the necessary aides and ad hoc committees to assist them in the performance of their duties. The technical board would forward all requests for funds to the trustees with recommendations for appropriate action, follow the progress of work sup- ported by the Foundation, and prepare reports or appraisals requested by the trustees.
The financial and other business affairs of the Foundation would be in charge of a full-time executive secretary responsible to the trustees.
The Foundation would not engage in research but would initiate and coordinate research in existing institutions and maintain liaison with inter- ested domestic and foreign agencies.
51
Part One
Considerations on which the Recommendations of the Committee are Based
1. The Record of Medicine in World War II
We believe that at no time has su- perior medical and surgical care been a\'ailable to the public generally than is now recei\ed by our armed forces even in the most remote parts of the world. Public knowledge of the ex- cellence of this care has brought com- fort to thousands of anxious families and has strengthened the morale of our fighting men.
The magnificent records of the medical departments of the Arm\' and Navy are directly attributable to two factors: (1) The training men re- cei\'ed before the war in American medical schools and teaching hospi- tals was the best in the world, and, when war came, large reserves of superbly trained physicians and sur- geons were available for the armed forces. (2) Medical progress had been rapid before the war and was continued at an accelerated rate dur- ing the war under the stimulus of the Committee on Medical Research and the Army Epidemiologv Board.
The results are spectacular. Be- tween World War I and World War II, the death rate for all diseases in the Army, including overseas forces, has been reduced from 14.1 to 0.6 per 1,000 strength. Dysentery, for- merly the scourge of armies, has be- come a minor problem. Tetanus, typhoid, paratyphoid, cholera, and smallpox have been practicallv elimi- nated. As a result of a potent vaccine
52
and impro\'ed mosquito control, yel- low fever has not appeared in the Armv or Navy. The prompt arrest of the Naples epidemic of typhus by means of the insecticide DDT is a dramatic example of preventive medicine.
The use of the sulfa drugs has lowered the death rate from lobar pneumonia in the Armv from 24 per- cent in World War I to less than 1 percent at present. The death rate from meningitis has been reduced to one-tenth of that in World War I. Penicillin is one of the great tri- umphs of modern therapeutics. By its use death rates and disability from infections due to the staphylococcus, streptococcus, pneumococcus, and an- thrax bacillus have been greatly re- duced. It has also proved to be a most effective weapon in limiting mfection and in accelerating healing of wounds and burns. As a result of treatment with penicillin the days per man per year lost from active duty in 1944 because of venereal dis- ease were one-third of those for 1940. The temporary disabling complica- tions of gonorrhea have been cut in this period to one twenty-fourth.
Ad\'ances in surgery have been scarcely less dramatic. Despite dev- astating antipersonnel munitions, the fatality rate among the wounded has been as low as in any war in history. Prolonged and difficult operations are performed successfully in field hos- pitals close to the front. Surgical skill has been aided by the avail-
ability of large quantities of plasma and whole blood for the treatment of severely wounded men.
2. The Committee on Medical Research of the Office of Scien- tific Research and Development
In the summer of 1940, the advice of the Di\'ision of Medical Sciences of the National Research Council was sought by the Surgeons General in many fields of medicine and sur- pery. Ultimately 13 committees and 43 subcommittees were set up in avi- ation medicine, chemotherapy, con- valescence and rehabilitation, drugs and medical supplies, industrial medi- cine, medicine including malarial studies, infectious diseases, nutrition, tropical disease, tuberculosis, venereal diseases, etc., neuropsychiatry, path- ology, sanitary engineering, shock and transfusion, surgery, and the treatment of gas casualties.
In June 1941, the Committee on Medical Research was organized un- der the Office of Scientific Research and Development, to "initiate and support scientific research on medical problems affecting the national de- fense." The existing committees of the National Research Council acted in an advisory capacity to the new organization.
As of December 1, 1944, 496 re- search contracts had been executed by the Committee on Medical Re- search with 120 different institutions. Over 95 percent of these contracts were with universities or teaching hospitals. The personnel represented in this work numbered about 2,670, of whom 553 were physicians. These investigators have studied dysentery, bubonic plague, cholera, gas gan- grene, influenza, tuberculosis, hemo- lytic streptococcal disease, encepha- litis, primary atypical pneumonia,
airborne infections, venereal diseases, infected wounds, burns, neurosur- gery. X-rays, surgical sutures, shock, blood substitutes, treatment of gas casualties, convalescence and reha- bilitation, insect and rodent control, antimalarial drugs, and the develop- ment and use of penicillin.
Among the most conspicuous achievements of this program are the following:
a. The acquisition, in civilian hos- pitals and laboratories, of suffi- cient knowledge of the thera- peutic value of penicillin to warrant its official adoption by the medical divisions of the Army and Navy and to provide the impetus for the great pro- duction program that has made this remarkable drug available in large quantities for both mili- tary and civilian use.
h. Developments in insect repel- lents and insecticides, particu- larly DDT, important in guard- ing troops against insect-borne diseases such as typhus and malaria.
c. The study of human blood plasma which has led to use by the armed forces of serum al- bumin as a blood substitute, of immune globulins to combat in- fections, and of fibrin foam to stop bleeding.
d. The improvement and stand- ardization of the treatment of malaria by atabrine.
e. The determination of the rela- tive usefulness of sulfonamide drugs in the treatment of wounds and burns.
f. The physiological indoctrination of our airmen and the develop- ment of devices which enable them to endure the rigors of
53
high altitudes without disastrous loss of fighting capacity or life.
It is fair to say that without the Office of Scientific Research and De- \'elopment or its equivalent few or none of the investigations listed above would have been carried out with the same speed and thoroughness. This research program to June 30, 1944, had cost over $15,000,000. Private funds were not available to finance this work.
3. Effect of War on Medical Research
Despite this imposing record of practical achievement, the war has seriously retarded the long-range de- velopment of medicine in ways per- haps not immediately apparent to the uninformed, but nevertheless with effects that will be longlasting. Because those physicians and scien- tists who have remained in their laboratories have, for patriotic rea- sons, devoted themselves to special problems raised by the exigencies of war, essential fundamental research has decreased to an extent which can only be viewed with grave concern.
Our hospitals and medical schools have suffered serious depletions of staff in order to supply the armed forces with needed physicians. Medi- cal education has been hurried and impaired by the accelerated program, and the advanced training of young men has been in practically complete abeyance throughout the war. This diversion of physicians, coupled with an effective prohibition against gradu- ate training in the ancillary sciences has left the fields of medical science barren and without the seed to pro- duce a new generation of investi- gators. It will be many years before medicine fully recovers.
4. The Need for Continued Medical Research
It must be emphasized that nearly all that was good or apparently new in war medicine had its roots in civilian medicine. The pressure of war served chiefly to accelerate the development and large scale applica- tion to military needs of previously known facts. Medicine must consider now how to attack the medical prob- lems of peace.
As President Roosevelt noted, the annual deaths in this country from one or two diseases alone are far in excess of the total number of lives lost by us in battle. This is true even though notable progress has been made in civilian medicine during the past three decades. Diabetes has been brought under control by the dis- covery of insulin; pernicious anemia by the use of liver therapy; and the once widespread deficiency diseases hav^e been almost eradicated, even in the poorest income groups, by the discovery of accessory food factors and the improvement of the diet. Notable advances have been made in the early diagnosis of cancer, and in the surgical and radiation treat- ment of this dreaded disease.
In the period of 1900 to 1942, the average life expectancy of the Ameri- can people increased from 49 to 65 years, largely as a result of the re- duction in the death rates of infants and children. In the last two decades, the death rate from diseases of child- hood has been reduced 87 percent. Deaths from scarlet fever have been reduced 92 percent, from whooping cough 74 percent, and from measles 91 percent. The death rate from diph- theria among children (5 to 14) is only one eighteenth what it was two decades ago. Only one-fourth as many children die today from tuber-
54
culosis and pneumonia as would if the mortality rate of 20 years ago still preyailed. The death rate among children between the ages of 5 and 14 from all causes combined was cut 57 percent between 1922 and 1942. For eyery three children who die under current conditions, more than seyen would haye died if the death rate of two decades ago had continued. This reduction in the death rate in childhood has shifted the emphasis in medicine to the middle- and old- age groups, and particularly to the malignant diseases and the degenera- tiye processes which are prominent in the later decades of life. Cardioyas- cular disease, including chronic dis- ease of the kidneys, arteriosclerosis, and cerebral hemorrhage, now ac- counts for 45 percent of the deaths in the United States. Second in im- portance are the infectious diseases, and third is cancer. Added to these are many maladies (for example, the common cold, arthritis, asthma and hay feyer, peptic ulcer) which, though infrequently fatal, cause in- calculable disability.
Another aspect of the changing emphasis in clinical medicine is the increasing incidence of mental dis- ease. Approximately 7,000,000 per- sons in the United States are men- tally ill. More than one-third of the hospital beds in this country are filled with such persons at a cost of $175,- 000,000 annually. Each year nearly 125,000 mentally ill new patients are hospitalized.
In short, despite notable progress in prolonging the span of human life and in alleyiating suffering, ade- quate methods of preyention and cure are not yet ayailable for many diseases. Additional hospitals, physi- cians, and mechanisms for dispersing knowledge, howeyer useful, cannot
su])ply a complete solution. We sim- ply do not know enough, and in- creased facilities for medical care will not supply the missing answers. The basic task faced by medicine is con- tinued exploration of the human organism and the nature of disease. This exploration has only begun.
5. Importance of Fundamental Research to the Progress of Medicine
Research in medicine may be car- ried out eflfectiyely in two ways: First, by a coordinated attack on a particular disease; or second, by inde- pendent studies of the fundamental nature of the human body and its physiological mechanisms, of the nature of bacteria, yiruses, and other agents of disease, and of the influence of enyironment on both. An example of the first method is the attack on malaria carried out under the Army, Nayy, Public Health Seryice, the National Research Council, and the Office of Scientific Research and De- yelopment. The discoyery of peni- cillin is an example of the second method: Fleming noted that a com- mon mold, Penicilliuvi notatum, in- hibited the growth of a culture of bacteria in which it appeared as a contaminant. Thus an incidental ob- servation in the course of studies un- related to chemotherapy furnished the basis for the ultimate deyelop- ment of the most valuable chemo- therapeutic agent known.
Discoveries in medicine have often come from the most remote and un- expected fields of science in the past; and it is probable that this will be equally true in the future. It is not unlikely that significant progress in the treatment of cardiovascular dis- ease, kidney disease, cancer, and other
55
refractory conditions will be made, perhaps unexpectedly, iis the result of fundamental discoveries in fields unrelated to these diseases.
To discover is to "obtain for the first time sight or knowledge of some fact or principle hitherto unknown." Discovery cannot be achieved by di- rective. Further progress requires that the entire field of medicine and the underlying sciences of chemistry, physics, anatomy, biochemistry, physi- ology, pharmacology, bacteriology, pathology, parasitology, etc., be de- veloped impartially.
6. The Place of Medical Schools and Universities in Medical Research
The medical schools and universi- ties of this country can contribute to medical progress by carrying on re- search to the limit of available facili- ties and personnel, and by training competent investigators for an en- larged program in the future.
In some cases coordinated direct attacks will be made on special prob- lems by teams of investigators from the medical schools, supplementing similar direct attacks carried on by the Army, Navy, Public Health Serv- ice, and other organizations. How- ever, the main obligation of the medical schools and universities, in addition to teaching, will be to con- tinue the traditional function of these institutions — that of providing the in- dividual worker with an opportunity for the voluntary and untrammeled study in the directions and by the methods suggested by his imagination and curiosity. The entire history of science bears testimony to the su- preme importance of affording the prepared mind complete freedom for the exercise of initiative. The special
duty and privilege of the medical schools and universities is to foster medical research in this way, and this duty cannot be shifted to Govern- ment agencies, industrial organiza- tions, or any other institutions.
Because of their close relationship to teaching hospitals, the medical schools are in a unique position to integrate clinical investigation with the work of the departments of pre- clinical science, and to impart new knowledge to physicians in training. Conversely, the teaching hospitals are especially well organized to carry on medical research because of their close relationship to the schools, on which they depend for staff and supervision.
Not all our medical schools are equally developed. Because of inade- quate financial support or lack of trained personnel, some of them can contribute little to medical research. A great increase in the resources of the Nation would be achieved by stimulating research in these less fa- vored schools. It is imperative that we employ all possible methods of improving the research facilities and research staffs of our present medical schools before considering the estab- lishment of new institutions.
7. Medical Research Under State Sponsorship in Great Britain
Although Federal aid for medical research was brought about in the United States largely under pressure of war, Government support of re- search has been general in Europe for many years. As a rule this support has been delegated to organizations separate from the ordinary Govern- ment bureaus in order to remove it as far as possible from political influ- ence and to place the administration
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of funds in the hands of men experi- enced in research.
In Great Britain as early as 101 I the promotion of medical research was explicitly recognized as a respon- sibility of the State by the establish ment of the Medical Research Com- mittee, which became the Medical Research Council in 1920. The Council has administrative autonomy with general responsibility to a com- mittee of ministers in the Priyy Council. It receives money from both Parliament and nongovernmen- tal sources specifically for furthering medical research and has no connec- tion with any system of medical care or health insurance.
The Medical Research Council has continued to play an increasingly im- portant and eminently successful role in its field. Through it Government support for medical research and the aid of medical science to the Govern- ment are assured.
Medical research in Great Britain also receives indirect Government aid through the University Grants Com- mittee, a Standing Committee of the Treasury. Its members are independ- ent experts of acknowledged repute and thoroughly familiar with the problems of university administration. The Committee's terms of reference are "To inquire into the financial needs of university education in the United Kingdom, and to advise the Government as to the application of any grants that may be made by Parliament toward meeting them."
Although the University Grants Committee does not give direct grants for specific medical research projects, it holds that research is one of the primary functions of a university and an indispensable element in the work of university teachers. Grants to the institutions are in the form of unre-
stricted funds with no portion ear- marked for a s[)ecilic jiurpose. Through a recent act of Parliament whereby this Committee is enabled to award $4,000,000 annually to medical schools and $2,000,000 to teaching hospitals, this indirect sup- port of medical research by the Government has been substantially increased.
8. The Need for Federal Aid to Medical Research
Between World War I and World War II the United States overtook the other nations in medical research and forged ahead to a position of world leadership. If this leadership is to be maintained, some form of Go\'ernment financial aid to the medi- cal schools will be necessary. This view is accepted by the Committee and by nearly all whom the Com- mittee has consulted.
Dr. A. N. Richards, Chairman of the Committee on Medical Research, reported to the Subcommittee on Wartime Health and Education of the Committee on Education and Labor of the United States Senate that, in connection with medical re- search, "The experience of the Office of Scientific Research and Develop- ment has proved that none of the universities which were called upon for Office of Scientific Research and Development work could afford to undertake it on the scale which the emergency demanded at the expense of its own resources. Hence, if the concerted efforts of medical investi- gators which have yielded so much of value during the war are to be con- tinued on any comparable scale dur- ing the peace, the conclusion is in- escapable that they must be supported by government."
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At the same hearing, Dr. Lewis H. Weed, Chairman of the Di\'ision of Medical Sciences of the National Re- search Council, stated '"" "" '^ Much of medical research will necessarily have to be abandoned in the private and semiprivate institutions of the country unless Go\'ernment subsidv is made available in some form for the general support of medical research."
Without Federal support American medical research will not stop, but without it our opportunities to ad- \'ance medical knowledge cannot fully be exploited, and our objectives will be reached more slowlv.
It has been computed that the an- nual budgets of the 77 medical schools in the United States total about $26,000,000. The portion of this sum spent for medical research cannot be determined accurately. In- come from tuition amounts to $8,000,000, leaving a deficit of $18,000,000 annually. To meet this deficit the schools, apart from those connected with State universities and financed by the respective States, draw upon many sources.
A substantial part comes from uni- versity endowment, but during the past 10 years the amount of new endowment to medical schools has greatly diminished. At the same time the income from present endowment has been cut by one-third. With con- tinued high taxation it is improbable that large gifts and bequests for scien- tific work can be expected in the future.
In many instances funds are allo- cated to the medical schools from tuition fees dcri\cd from other de- partments of the university.
Another source of research funds is the foundations, but, as in the case of the universities, the income from foundation endowment is decreasing.
Moreo\'er. the foundations in general favor short-term grants to projects which carry promise of yielding im- mediate results.
Industry is a potential source of funds, but gifts from this source are usually for specific problems of a developmental nature. Universit\' alumni associations contribute only relatively small sums. Direct gifts from indi\'iduals are a substantial aid at times, but the medical schools must compete with all charities and churches for these funds. Further- more, it is estimated that gifts from individuals, while perhaps more nu- merous, are far smaller in total than the large contributions of individual donors in the past.
When the funds available to a medical school are cut, the institution usually retrenches by curtailing the portion used for research. Overhead and teaching expenses must be met, and research becomes a luxury.
Finally, while research funds are decreasing, the costs of research are steadily rising. More elaborate and expensive equipment is required, sup- plies are more costly, and the wages of assistants are higher.
9. How Financial Aid Should be Supplied
Federal financial aid to the medi- cal schools should be provided in three forms: General research funds, fellowships, and grants-in-aid. General research funds
It is the Committee's opinion that unrestricted grants, with no portion earmarked for specific purposes, and with administration delegated to local research boards, would be the most \'aluable and productive form in which Government support could be given.
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A medical school consists of a dozen or more semi-autonomous de- partments, each with its own budget. In the schools fa\'ored with a large endowment, research projects arc con- stantly in progress in all departments; in financially weaker schools, the budget of a department may be too small to supply as much as a secretary for the department head, and research is, of course, a financial impossibility. E\'en in the most fayorcd depart- ments, the quality and quantity of re- search would be greatly increased if it were possible to employ an extra technical assistant or tvyo, to purchase additional supplies or a necessary piece of equipment, to improve or enlarge animal quarters, or to meet other countless small financial re- quirements that may arise suddenly and may be of a temporary nature. In departments with small budgets such requirements are eyen more pressing. Many medical schools at present haye small likelihood of se- curing grants-in-aid because they ha\'e neither personnel nor equip- ment to conduct successfully the type of research project appropriately fi- nanced by this method.
If a central agency were to attempt to meet item by item these many requirements by means of specific grants, the administrative costs would be prohibitixe. The amount needed for each item is small, but the total amount needed by an institution may be relatively large.
Furthermore, a central agency would lack the flexibility to meet the rapidly varying and often temporary research needs that arise in the medi- cal schools. A promising lead in re- search mav prove patently false within a month or two. It is equally important that the project should then be stopped, and its personnel
and equipment promptly diverted to more producti\'e work, as it is that the project should have been given a trial.
A special use for general research funds would be to provide "junior fellowships" which would allow a medical student to interrupt his course, usually between the preclini- cal and clinical years, and to devote himself full-time to research for a year or two. The chances in this country for medical students to gain research experience prior to gradua- tion are few, and as a result much research ability goes undiscovered. Candidates for these fellowships would be unknown to a central agency, which would have to rely entirely upon the judgment of the local research board for their selec- tion. Hence it would be proper and economical to provide these fellow- ships from the general research funds administered by the local board.
The provision of funds as block grants to local research boards would exercise to greatest advantage the principle of decentralization of con- trol of research; would eliminate costly overhead; would create a flexi- ble mechanism to meet rapidly vary- ing needs; would allow full play to the wisdom and experience of medi- cal school faculties and administra- tors, whose knowledge in aggregate and whose particular knowledge of local needs must always exceed that of a central agency; would promote research in laboratories where it is now poor!)' developed; would foster investigations of an exploratory na- ture; and would provide the greatest and most eff'ective stimulus to medi- cal research.
¥e\\o\vs\i\fs
Federal funds should be used to support fellowships, extending over periods up to 6 years, to be awarded
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bv the Government agency to enable selected men to obtain training in re- search, to learn techniques in fields other than those of their basic scien- tific education, or to undertake re- search on a full-time basis. Since 1921 the fellowship program, sup- ported by the Rockefeller Foundation and administered by the Medical Fel- lowship Board of the National Re- search Council, has made an impor- tant contribution to the ad\ance of medical science and to the training of teachers and investigators in the United States. An increase in the number of such fellowships is greatly needed.
Grants-in-aid
A limited number of important re- search projects both of immediate and long-range consequence, will require special grants-in-aid. On occasion, through grants-in-aid, support should be given to medical schools, hospitals, or nonprofit scientific institutions to enable a senior investigator to develop the problems of his interest more rapidly and effectively.
10. Estimated Cost of Program
No final statement on costs is possible at this time. From informa- tion received from the deans of medi- cal schools, from the expenditures of the Committee on Medical Research, and from other sources, it is estimated that approximately 5 to 7 million dol- lars annually can be used effectively in the immediate postwar period. A larger sum mav be required when the program is fully underway. This esti- mate does not include the possible assumption of present commitments of the Office of Scientific Research and Development. A more definite statement would require prolonged studv.
11. The ISeed for an Independent Agency
Advances in medical science have come and will continue to come pre- ponderantly from medical schools or science departments of universities. Therefore the problem of improving medical research and of training more top-flight in\'estigators is primarily one of aiding the medical schools and unixersities to utilize their research and educational facilities to the full- est extent.
In the Committee's opinion, medi- cal research could best be promoted by the creation of an independent Federal agency.
This new organization would not conflict with the medical interests of existing Government agencies, none of which is primarily concerned with developing the basic medical sciences or with training personnel, both of which are functions of the unixer- sities. Some duplication of investiga- tion would occur in problems in which civilian investigators and one or more Government agencies were mutually interested. However, it can- not be too strongly emphasized that, far from being wasteful, duplication is imperative in medical research, where each new discovery can be accepted only after repeated confirma- tion by independent observers ap- proaching the problem from different points of view. The duplication is more apparent than real, as the re- sults of independent in\'estigators working on a common problem rarely agree exactly, and the differences are frequently the basis for new dis- coveries.
Rather than conflicting with exist- ing agencies, the proposed body would supplement the research activ- ities of these agencies in a valuable manner. Only through the efforts of
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such a body can our Gcncrnnicnt agencies be supplied with the neces- sary increase in numbers oi expert personnel and with the all-important increase in basic scientific knowledge on which medical ad\ance depends. As the function of the proposed agency is broadly conceiyed. as it must be concerned not onl\' with research but \yith the training of personnel required b\' all existing agencies, and as it must operate through non-Goyernmental education institutions, the future of which rests heavily upon private endowment or support by the States, it is the Com- mittee's con\iction that the Federal agency concerned with medical re- search should be created de novo and be independent of all existing agen- cies, none of which is sufficiently free of specialization of interest to vyarrant assigning to it the sponsorship of a program so broad and so intimately related to civilian institutions.
12. Compensation
The Committee belie\'es that better effort will be put into the work of the agency by members if they are paid. The question of adjustment of salary from parent institutions should be left to the parties concerned.
It is estimated that members of the board of trustees and technical board, as proposed below, will be called upon to gi\'e an a\'erage of one-third of their time to the work of the agency. One-half the time of the aides may be required. This includes time devoted by members to the work of the agency at their official stations and in traveling.
Over the past 25 years there has been an increasing draft of expert personnel from the medical schools to meet the demand for scientists in
acti\ities related to the national wel- fare, until at present, exen discount- ing the increased demands of war, man\' teachers and investigators are unable to discharge their responsibili- ties to the institutions which pay their salaries. A further increase in this borrowing of personnel without com- pensation can inflict only injury upon the medical schools.
Moreover, many competent inves- tigators in medicine and surgery draw a negligible fraction of their income as salary, depending financially upon clinical practice. Participation in the work of the agency may interrupt this practice and the resulting loss of in- come may exclude such persons from service.
13. Patent Rights
The practice in regard to patent rights on discoveries and inventions bearing on human health varies in diflferent medical institutions in this country. The Committee has made no effort to codify them, or to arrive at a generally acceptable policy.
It seems to the Committee that under the present patent laws the principle of patenting certain types of discoveries and in\'entions to ex- clude misuse is sound. Since perhaps the majority of institutions do not capitalize their patent privileges, and since such practice would be incom- patible with Government sponsored research, it is suggested that, where a patent be granted on research which has been sponsored by Gov- ernment in whole or in part, the ownership of the patent remain in the inventor, and that the Govern- ment receive, in addition to a royalty- free license, the power to require the licensing of others.
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Part Two
Fundamental Principles Governing the Use of Federal Funds
for Medical Research
As stated above, the Committee is convinced that Federal aid is neces- sary to ensure maximal progress in the development of medical science. It is also convinced that this aid, if misdirected, mav do serious harm. It believes that among the major principles which should govern the application of Federal aid to medical research are the following:
a. Until experience has indicated the best plan of organization and procedure, the Federal agency created to aid medical research should be kept as flexi- ble as possible. One of our colleagues has written "The common history of social organi- zations has been their creation in response to an idea, their flowering under the influence of the idea, their loss of the idea, and their perpetuation for the maintenance of the prestige of the office-holder." Onlv if authority to experiment with or- ganization is written into its charter will an agency designed to aid medical research escape this fate.
h. The administration of Federal aid to medical research must be free from political influence and protected against special pres- sures.
c. Men who are experienced in research and who understand the problems of the investigator
should administer the agency and determine its policies. Since the agency will be concerned primarily with basic scientific research in, and scientific train- ing and policies pertinent to, endowed or State supported civilian institutions, and since the armed forces, the Public Health Service, and other exist- ing governmental services have specialized interests, the Com- mittee believes that it is as im- proper for any one of these serv- ices to hold the power of vote in matters pertaining to the pro- posed new agencv as it would be for one or more members of the agency to vote in the medi- cal councils of the services.
d. The agency should not attempt to dominate or regiment medical research but should function by creating greater opportunities and more freedom for investiga- tion, and by aiding in coopera- tive eff^orts. It should not at- tempt to influence the selection of personnel, the conditions of tenure, the salary level, or other internal aff^airs of the institu- tions to which it gives aid.
e. Any program of Federal aid to medical research should